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valves and walls cooling in reciprocating engines, but in more general heat dissipation problems due to friction, problems of sealing and interference due to thermal expansion (losses, wear, noise, cracks), etc. Besides, the study of heat engines is usually associated to that of fuels and their actual combustion process, the materials involved (including the required cooling), the mechanisms and their lubrication, the piping of the working fluid (air admission, fuel injection, and product exhaust), the ignition if any, the structure and its supports (including vibration isolation), their performances in terms of shaft speed and torque (e.g. for coupling to vehicle wheels or screw propellers), the electronic system (sensors and controls), testing and diagnostic means, and so on. And each of the mentioned aspects may demand ever-increasing efforts to analyse; e.g. in a few milliseconds, a thin liquid stream in turbulent motion may cavitate and flash-boil at the tip of the fuel injector, form a spray, break it down to a myriad of droplets, which evaporate, ignite, burn, and generate unwanted emissions. It is understood that knowledge of the basic principles of heat engines is not enough to design a working machine, not even to make it running (but would help a lot). Although a more general presentation of heat engines is here provided, the proposed exercises are basically limited to ideal cycles with few practical modifications (e.g. isentropic efficiencies in turbo- machinery, temperature jumps in heat exchangers, and so on). CARNOT CYCLE With his 1824 masterpiece "Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu, et sur les machines propres a développer cette puissance", Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot was the first to provide a thermodynamic model of a heat engine, abstracting from the only available heat engine, the steam engine, to pinpoint the fundamentals: the idea of a generic working fluid, performing a generic cyclic process, interacting with generic heat reservoirs. In that his only publication, Carnot concluded that all heat engines where limited in their energy-conversion efficiency by the operating temperatures, and that the maximum efficiency is obtained when the working fluid is assumed to follow four ideal processes (Fig. 17.1): An isentropic compression (1 to 2), to change temperature without heat transfer. An isothermal heat input (2 to 3), from the hot source, at the hot-source temperature. An isentropic expansion (3 to 4), to change temperature without heat transfer. An isothermal heat rejection to the cold source (usually the environment), at the cold-source temperature. Carnot reached those conclusion by a set of rational deductions, namely: 'any engine with friction would have less efficiency than one without', 'among all engines exchanging heat at different temperatures, the one with highest efficiency only exchanges heat at the two extreme temperatures (the hottest and the coldest)', and 'all reversible engines working with the same couple of temperature extremes have the same efficiency'. The energy and exergy efficiencies were defined in Chapter 3, and can be de easily deduced by establishing the overall energy conservation, Euniv=QhotWQcold=0, and the overall entropy balance, Suniv=Qhot/Thot+Qcold/Tcold,0, the latter being zero in the ideal case of a Carnot cycle, what yields: net 1 e W 1T, 1 (17.1) e Q e,Carnot T x x,Carnot pos 2 e,CarnotPDF Image | THERMAL MACHINES AND HEAT ENGINES
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