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THERMAL MACHINES AND HEAT ENGINES

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THERMAL MACHINES AND HEAT ENGINES ( thermal-machines-and-heat-engines )

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THE HEAT ENGINE What it is A heat engine is a machine that produces work from heat, like the steam engine, the work-horse of the Industrial Revolution. Not all engines are heat engines (e.g. hydraulic wheels and windmills), but heat engines provide near 90% of the motive power generated in the world (an average of 2·1012 W in the year 2000, nearly half-and-half for electricity and transportation), the other 10% provided by hydroelectric power stations. Nearly 60% of all the world energy consumption is devoted to run heat engines, the rest being devoted to industrial and domestic heating. Engines did not change too much from the Neolithic-watermills and windmills until the development of the first type of heat engine, the steam engine, in the 18th century. Since then, heat engines have produced a huge change in society, particularly regarding personal mobility and goods transportation. The principle of a heat engine was established in Chapter 3: a heat engine is a device where a working fluid performs four basic processes: heat input, hot expansion, heat rejection, and cold compression. By means of these internal processes, the heat engine gets heat from a hot source, produces some net work, and rejects the rest of the energy balance as heat to a colder heat reservoir. It was precisely the understanding of this general principle (the need of at least two heat reservoirs) and the optimisation of it (the finding that the maximum efficiency only depends on the extreme temperatures), that gave birth to Thermodynamics in the 19th century. All heat engines rely on the compressibility of the working fluid (i.e. a gas or vapour) and the fact that a hot expansion delivers more work than that needed for a cold compression (of a gas, vapour or liquid). What it is for Motive power (engines and motors) are used as stand-alone plants to deliver motion or electricity to other systems, or within vehicles to provide motive power (propulsion) and auxiliary energy. There were nearly a billion (109) vehicles worldwide in 2000, more than 80% of them passenger cars. More than 2·109 motor vehicles have been manufactured from 1900 to 2000, and a similar amount is expected to be delivered from 2000 to 2020. The steam engine is now only found in the largest power stations (nuclear and coal driven), and today the most common heat engine is the internal combustion reciprocating engine (for cars, trucks, ships, small aeroplanes, and stationary engines), with a third type, the gas turbine engine gaining ground (for most aircraft, the faster types of ship, modern power stations and combined power-and-heat stations). The largest thermal power plants are vapour turbines, typically limited to 1000 MW per unit in nuclear power stations because of heat transfer limitations from the reactor (fuel-fired power stations are limited to some 400 MW per unit because of combustion intensity limitations). Gas turbines may also reach some 300 MW per unit, and the largest reciprocating engines are marine diesel engines up to 100 MW (the largest petrol engine is just 0.3 MW). Notice that when referring to a heat engine, its power is always to be understood as its output power (i.e. its mechanical or electrical power; the thermal power input, commonly referred to the low heating value of the fuel used, being typically three times larger). Thermal aspects of heat engines We are going to analyse the internal workings of heat engines, but only from the thermodynamic point-of-view (i.e. what thermodynamic processes take place in actual heat engines), but not considering other important aspects of heat engines, either thermal or non-thermal. Thermal problems in power-generation equipment include heat transfer problems, particularly cooling problems, which are often crucial to all kinds of engines, not only in high-temperature turbine-blades for gas turbines,

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