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although these require drilling wells, generally between 300 and 1,800 feet deep (91 and 550 meters) (Sanford). Unlike large geothermal installations, GHPs do not actually produce electricity, but require an external source. Still they are far more efficient than conventional units, since “electricity is re- quired to run the equipment, but no fuel is burned to create the heat” (Sanford). GHPs therefore shave 30 to 60% off the cost of “tradi- tional heating and cooling systems, because the electricity which powers them is used only to collect, concentrate, and deliver heat, not to pro- duce it” (Blodgett & Slack). Another study es- timates that GHPs could reduce the growth in nonrenewable energy use in buildings by 35 to 40% (Hughes). Even more benefits can be eked out of GHPs. Because “the byproduct of cooling from a geo- thermal system is heating” (Hayden), GHPs can be used to heat water via waste heat from air conditioning through a piece of technology known as a desuperheater. However GHP water heating can only supplement an existing system; it will not work year-round. GHPs do share one huge drawback with geothermal electricity generation: initial cost. In gen- eral, a “home of about 2,000 square feet would require about a three-ton system. On average, a GHP system costs about $2,500 per ton of capacity, or roughly $7,500 for a three-ton unit” (Calahan). A similar conventional system would cost only about $4,000 (Calahan). Added to this for GHPs is the cost of drilling, which runs from $10,000 to $30,000 (California Energy). Still, a geothermal system saves about $1,000 annually (Rupar) and payback time ranges from five to twelve years (Kozlowski). GHPs are also easier to build into new construction than to retrofit. GHPs are especially useful for larger homes, complexes, and buildings, for which they have a much shorter payback time. Schools have often chosen GHPs, “as school planners think beyond first costs and look at operating costs” (Hayden). Furthermore, given that the basic knowledge and infrastructure for GHPs is sparse, as they become more widespread installation costs will undoubtedly come down. ProQuest Discovery Guides http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main.php Goffman: Geothermal Energy http://www1.eere.energy.gov/tribalenergy/guide/geot hermal_heat_pumps.html 3 Released September 2009PDF Image | The k p method and its application to graphene, carbon nanotubes and graphene nanoribbons: the Dirac equation
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