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Another long-term benefit of GHPs, which may be overlooked, is longevity. GHPs last 25 to 30 years, twice as long as air source heat pumps (Vastyan). Of course the benefits of using a clean air source are not reaped by the individual user, but by the wider society and the planet. Using less power means that “installing a geoexchange system in a single-family home is equal in greenhouse gas reduction to planting an acre of trees or taking two cars off the road” (Sanford). Other environmental benefits include less local pollution and less harm from mining, for instance where coal is the source of electricity. Already, the United States has over 600,000 GHP units (Hughes). Still, Europe is currently in- stalling two to three times as many unitsas the U.S., where GHPs are often overlooked. A U.S. Department of Energy report “recommends that federal policymakers seriously consider aggres- sive nationwide deployment of GHPs, with programs commencing as soon as possible” (Hughes). Geothermal Plants Unlike GHPs, geothermal plants produce electricity for con- sumption on a vast scale. They also are available only from relatively few sources deep underground, those with ex- tremely hot water, at least 212°F (100°C) (Geothermal 101). Given current technology the range of usable heat is limited; “If the steam is much colder than 150 °C [302 °F], it will start to condense into water before it can be used to turn a turbine. On the other hand, steam hotter than 400 °C [752 °F], although richer in energy, is harder to find and to han- dle” (Economist). Rather, a closed loop system recycles the hot water—it rises in the form of steam, powers the electrical turbines, then returns into the earth as a liquid. The cycle is virtually endless: “Once the water is returned to the geothermal reservoir, it is reheated by the Earth‟s hot rocks and can be used” repeatedly (Geothermal 101). Like such renewables as wind, geothermal, once installed, provides virtually free energy over an open-ended timespan. Unlike most renewables, geother- mal has the advantage of being available at every time of day every season of the year. It is thus able to provide baseline power making it a reliable form of energy that can replace coal fired plants. Indeed geothermal has “average availabilities of 90% or higher, compared to about 75% for coal plants” (US DOE Geothermal). There are three basic types of geothermal systems: Dry steam, Flash, and Binary. Dry steam, first used in Italy in 1904, employs hot steam directly into turbines that generate electricity. The Gey- sers, located in California, is the only such plant in the United States. Flash plants start with wa- ter from between 300 and 700 °F (148 and 371 °C) brought up through a well (Watson). This hot water is “flashed,” or rapidly vaporized, at low pressure to become steam (US DOE Hydrother- mal), spinning a turbine; the water then returns through an injection well to be reused. Binary plants use pressurized water passed through a heat exchanger, transferred to another liquid with a ProQuest Discovery Guides http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main.php Goffman: Geothermal Energy Dry steam power plants at The Geysers in California http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothe rmal/powerplants.html 4 Released September 2009PDF Image | The k p method and its application to graphene, carbon nanotubes and graphene nanoribbons: the Dirac equation
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