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Australian Geothermal Energy Conference 2011 electricity from 1950 to 2010, with a projection to 2015. Although the 2015 figure of 18,500 MWe is a projection only, the number of projects under development (as shown for example in Figure 2) leads credence to the number. It should also be noted that historically high oil prices in the early 1980s also stimulated a substantial expansion of geothermal capacity. Figure 3: World geothermal electricity, installed capacity (MW) and produced electricity (GWh), 2005-2010, from Bertani (2010). This renewed interest is the result world economic and political forces (mainly increased oil price and moral preference for renewable energy) combined with advances in technology that make geothermal energy more accessible (for example, power plant efficiency increases and utilisation of lower temperature fluids). Innovations in utilisation technologies have included: Increasing use of innovative power plants, often by marrying flash plants with binary bottoming cycles. The result is an increased recovery of the thermal energy in the resource. Use of fluids of lower temperature, with refined binary cycle power plants. The result is a wider availability of producible resources. A noteworthy example is the 250 kW organic Rankine cycle plant in Chena Hot Springs, Alaska, which produces electricity from a very low temperature (74°C) geothermal resource (Lund et al., 2010). Reservoir enhancement techniques. The world has seen the first commercial Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) plant at Landau, Germany, started in 2008 (Schellschmidt et al., 2010). Multiple EGS projects are now under development in the world, including six in the US alone. This paper will discuss these three issues, as a path to understanding where they may take the geothermal energy industry in the future. 2. Innovative Plants For many years, geothermal power plants had a degree of uniformity based on the adoption of strategies that had worked in the small number of flash plants in early developments. Based on experience at The Geysers, in the US the 55 MW plant came to be accepted as “normal” in size. Apparently this was often found to be a comfortably sized unit in many other parts of the world too. Based on reservoir temperatures common at the time, turbine inlet pressures tended to be in the vicinity of 600 kPa. However in the more recent past, considerably wider variation in the design strategy of the plant has been seen. A good example is the combined cycle plant at Rotokawa in New Zealand (Figure 4), which was one of the first developments built with a binary bottoming cycles supplied from the exhaust of a steam flash plant. This plant combines a back pressure steam turbine with a very high inlet pressure (2550 kPa) with three binary plants into which the exit steam is sent (Legmann and Sullivan, 2003). This combined cycle unit has a steam consumption of around 5 kg/kWhr, which is very favourable compared to steam consumption at The Geysers of about 8 kg/kWhr (computed from data shown in Sanyal and Enedy, 2011) or around 9 kg/kWhr at Ahuachapán, El Salvador (Handal et al., 2007). Combinations of binary and flash plants are now found in several other projects too. 110 Figure 4: Rotokawa geothermal plant, a combined cycle flash-steam/binary station (photo: Mighty River Power). The innovation already extends beyond the combination of different geothermal generation technologies. The past few years has seen an interest in the combination of geothermal generation with other sources, for example the combined geothermal-solar operation at Ahuachapán, El Salvador (Handal et al., 2007, and Alvarenga et al., 2008), and one announced in August 2011 by ENEL Green Power for the Stillwater project in Nevada (see also Greenhut et al., 2010). The combination of geothermal with solar thermal energy provides an opportunity to raise source fluid temperatures and even out the intermittency in insolation. In the future, energy combinations, such as the electricity and hot water supply projects common in Iceland, will certainly continue the innovation.PDF Image | Alaska Geothermal Conference
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