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26 Geothermal Energy—Clean Power From the Earth’s Heat Geothermal Energy and Environmental Impact As with other types of energy resources, geothermal energy should be developed using methods that minimize environmental impacts. Compared with most other forms of power production, geothermal is environmentally benign. A typical geothermal plant using hot water and steam to generate electricity emits about 1 percent of the sulfur dioxide (SO2), less than 1 percent of the nitrous oxides (NOx), and 5 percent of the carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted by a coal-fired plant of equal size. Airborne emissions from a binary geothermal plant are essentially nonexistent because geothermal gases are not released into the atmosphere. The experience gained in drill- ing and completing wells in a variety of geothermal environ- ments, combined with regulatory conditions imposed by the permitting agencies, serves to minimize the risks of accidental releases of geothermal fluids. Land areas required for geothermal developments involv- ing power plants and wells vary with the local reservoir condi- tions and the desired power outputs. A well field to support a 100 megawatt geothermal development (for generating elec- tricity) might require about 200 to 2,000 hectares. However, while supporting the powerplant, this land still can be used for other purposes, for example livestock grazing, once the power- plant and associated piping from wells are completed. As with any new power plant, whatever the type of fuel to be used, land-area requirements, visual and noise impacts, and risks of production-related accidents must be adequately addressed during the development phase of a geothermal project. Although geothermal energy is sometimes referred to as a renewable energy resource, this term is somewhat misleading because the available hot water, steam, and heat in any given hydrothermal system can be withdrawn faster than they are replenished naturally (see section called “The Geysers—World’s Largest Producer of Geothermal Electric- ity”). It is more accurate to consider geothermal energy as a sustainable resource, one whose usefulness can be prolonged or sustained by optimum production strategy and methods. Indeed, the concept of sustainable (versus renewable) produc- tion of geothermal resources is the current focus of intensive studies by scientists and other specialists. Major questions being addressed include: How many hundreds or thousands of years are required to replenish a hydrothermal system? What is the best method for replenishing and sustaining a system to increase its longevity? In practice, choices must always be made between maxi- mizing the rate of fluid withdrawal (energy production) for a short period of time versus sustaining a lower rate for a longer period of time. For example, a decline in steam pressure in wells at The Geysers, California, was a result of too-rapid development of this field to the level of 2,100 megawatts dur- ing the 1980s. Nonetheless, it is anticipated that production from The Geysers at the current rate of about 1,000 megawatts electric can be sustained for decades to come, now that injec- tion has been increased by importing wastewater from nearby communities. Incremental development of any hydrothermal system, coupled with monitoring for possible production- induced hydrologic and chemical changes, is the best way to determine the optimum rate of production for maximizing the longevity of a hydrothermal system. Another important issue is the disposal of cooled geo- thermal water left after heat extraction or steam separation during the energy-production cycle. In the earliest geothermal developments, such “waste” water was disposed of in surface ponds or rivers. Now, in almost every geothermal develop- ment worldwide, this water is injected through wells back into the subsurface. This now common practice not only mini- mizes the chance of contaminating surface waters, but it also provides replenishing water to help sustain a hydrothermal system, thereby increasing the total amount of heat that can be extracted over its productive life. In areas with natural surface thermal features, such as hot springs and steam vents, subsurface depletion of geothermal fluids by production wells can change the rate of flow and vigor of these features, which may also be scenic and recre- ational attractions. Experience suggests that adverse effects can be minimized by proper siting of injection and production wells to maintain reservoir-fluid pressure at near preproduc- tion levels. A program of continuous monitoring of hot-spring behavior and subsurface reservoir conditions is required to identify potential problems early enough to allow timely miti- gation measures.PDF Image | Geothermal Energy 1249 USGS
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