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Geothermal Energy—Clean Power From the Earth’s Heat� 25 Hot Springs “Remember” Their Deeper, Hotter Origins Hot water circulating in the Earth’s crust dissolves some of the rock through which it flows. The amounts and proportions of dissolved constituents in the water are a direct function of temperature. Thus, if geothermal water rises quickly to the Earth’s surface, its chemical composi- tion does not change significantly and bears an imprint of the subsurface temperature. Field and laboratory studies show that this deeper, hotter temperature is commonly “remembered” by thermal waters of hot springs. Subsurface temperatures calculated from hot-spring-water chemistry have been confirmed by direct measurements made at the base of holes drilled into hydrothermal systems at many locations worldwide. The technique of determining subsur- face temperature from the chemistry of hot-spring water is called “chemical geothermometry.” Quartz (SiO2) is a common mineral in the Earth’s crust and has almost ideal characteristics for chemical geother- mometry. The solubility of quartz is strongly temperature dependent, dissolved quartz does not readily react with other common dissolved constituents, and dissolved quartz precipitates very slowly as temperature is lowered. The quartz geothermometer is especially useful in the range of about 150 to 240°C. If upflowing geothermal water mixes with cool shallow ground water, or partly boils in response to decreasing pressure, appropriate adjustments must be made to the calculated subsurface temperature. Feldspars—the most common minerals in the Earth’s crust—contribute the elements sodium, potassium, and calcium to geothermal waters, in ratios also dependent on temperature. An advantage of dealing with ratios of elements is that boiling or dilution by mixing with cool, shallow ground water changes the ratios little, if any. The ratio between the elements magnesium and lithium, which are also introduced into geothermal water from dissolution of rock, has also proved to be an accurate geothermometer. Isotopes (atoms of the same chemical element but with different atomic weights) of individual elements also distribute themselves according to temperature. For example, virtually all hydrothermal waters contain dis- solved sulfate, and isotopes of oxygen distribute them- selves between the sulfate and its solvent, water, accord- ing to a temperature-dependent relationship that can also indicate the subsurface temperature of a hydrothermal system. In practice, scientists generally use a combination of geothermometers, rather than relying on any single one, to determine subsurface temperature from the chemical composition of hot-spring water. In so doing, uncertainties associated with results obtained using only one method may be reduced or resolved with reference to the results from other methods. Chemical geothermometry is perhaps the most power- ful tool of surface exploration for geothermal resources. If geothermometry suggests only low subsurface tempera- tures, the decision about whether or not to drill that initial expensive exploration well may be “no.” For a young volcanic area such as the San Francisco Volcanic Field of northern Arizona, which has no hot springs, the lack of geothermometer temperatures may discourage drilling, in spite of several other positive indicators of a potential resource (see section called “Magma, Volcanoes, and Geo- thermal Energy”). ��� ��� ������ ��� ��� ����������� ���������� ���� �������� ��������������� �� ������� ������� Graph of temperatures measured in wells drilled into hydrothermal systems versus temperatures calculated from compositions of hot-spring water or steam, before drilling. Dashed line shows where points should plot if measured and calculated values agreed perfectly. Dots somewhat above this line show that calculated temperatures tend to slightly underestimate measured temperatures, but still are very useful in guiding exploration strategies. ���������� ����������� �������� �� ����� �� ������� �������PDF Image | Geothermal Energy 1249 USGS
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