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S. Quoilin et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 168–186 169 8.4.3. Addition of non-condensing gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183 8.4.4. Thermal subcooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183 9. Next generation organic Rankine cycles and current R&D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 10. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 1. Introduction The world energy consumption has risen to a level never reached before, releasing in the same process large quantities of CO2 into the atmosphere. Current concerns over climate change call for measures to reduce greenhouse gases emissions, which will most likely include the following modifications of the current energy systems [1]: (1) A decrease in the energy intensity of buildings and industry. (2) A shift from fossil fuels toward electricity, e.g. for transporta- tion and space heating. (3) Clean power generation by a massive shift toward renewable energies, comprising wind energy, PV, CSP, biomass, geother- mal and large hydro. (4) A reinforcement of the grid capacity and inter-regional transmission lines to absorb daily and seasonal fluctuations. Among the proposed solutions to fulfill these objectives, the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) technology can play a non-negligible role, in particular for objectives 1 and 3: It can have a beneficial effect on the energy intensity of industrial processes, mainly by recovering waste heat (i.e. heat that is otherwise lost). Installing an ORC to convert waste heat into electricity enables a better use of the primary energy. This approach is known as combined heat and power generation (CHP) through a bottoming cycle. It can have a positive effect on building consumptions, e.g. using CHP systems: since fossil fuels are able to generate high temperature levels, an ORC can take advantage of this high temperature to produce electricity. The low level temperature rejected by the ORC is still able to meet the needs of the building. This approach is known as combined heat and power generation through topping cycles. It can be used to convert renewable heat sources into electricity. This mainly includes geothermal, biomass and solar sources (CSP). During the transition toward electric vehicles, it can be used to increase the well-to-wheel efficiency by waste heat recov- ery on the exhaust gases, on the EGR and on the engine coolant. Conceptually, the Organic Rankine Cycle is similar to a Steam Rankine Cycle in that it is based on the vaporization of a high pressure liquid which is in turn expanded to a lower pressure thus releasing mechanical work. The cycle is closed by condensing the low pressure vapor and pumping it back to the high pressure. Therefore, the Organic Rankine Cycle involves the same compo- nents as a conventional steam power plant (a boiler, a work- producing expansion device, a condenser and a pump). However, the working fluid is an organic compound characterized by a lower ebullition temperature than water and allowing power generation from low heat source temperatures. In the rather new framework of decentralized conversion of low temperature heat into electricity, the ORC technology offers an interesting alternative, which is partly explained by its modular feature: a similar ORC system can be used, with little modifications, in conjunction with various heat sources. More- over, unlike conventional power cycles, this technology allows for decentralized and small scale power generation. These assets make the ORC technology more adapted than steam power to the conversion of renewable energy sources whose availability is generally more localized than that of fossil fuels, and whose temperature (e.g. in a solar collector or in a geothermal well) is lower than that of traditional fuels. In this paper, an overview of the different ORC applications is presented. An in-depth analysis of the technical challenges related to this technology is proposed, such as working fluid or expansion machine issues. A market review is then given with cost figures for different commercial ORC modules and manufac- turers, and the current trends in research and development are discussed. 2. ORC technology and applications The layout of the Organic Rankine Cycle is somewhat simpler than that of the steam Rankine cycle: there is no water–steam drum connected to the boiler, and one single heat exchanger can be used to perform the three evaporation phases: preheating, vaporization and superheating. The variations of the cycle archi- tecture are also more limited: reheating and turbine bleeding are generally not suitable for the ORC cycle, but a recuperator can be installed as liquid preheater between the pump outlet and the expander outlet, as illustrated in Fig. 1. This allows reducing the amount of heat needed to vaporize the fluid in the evaporator. The simple architecture presented in Fig. 1 can be adapted and optimized depending on the target application. The main applica- tions are briefly described in the following sections. Although this review only focuses on state-of-the art commercially available ORC plants, it should be noted that some prospective advanced applications for Organic Rankine Cycles are currently being studied, mainly in the form of prototypes or proof-of-concepts. These innovative applications include: Solar pond power systems, in which the ORC system takes advantage of temperature gradients in salt-gradient solar ponds [2]. Solar ORC-RO desalination systems, where the ORC is used to drive the pump of a reverse-osmosis desalination plant [2,3]. Ocean thermal energy conversion systems, utilizing the temperature gradients (of at least 20 1C) in oceans to drive a binary cycle [2]. Cold production, where the shaft power of the ORC system is used to drive the compressor of a refrigeration system. Note thatPDF Image | Techno-economic survey of Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) systems
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