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144 Direct-use in Iceland Utilization of geothermal energy for direct purposes such as bathing, cooking and washing probably extends back to the first set- tlement of Iceland. However, it was not until the early twentieth cen- tury that general development of geothermal energy for purposes such as household heating took place. In 1928, the first extensive geothermal development for district heating got underway, when the first wells were drilled in the Laugarnes low temperature field in Reykjavik. By 1930, a three-km long pipeline was installed to trans- port the hot water into the center of the city to provide heating for a primary school, the national hospital, 60 households as well as hot water for a swimming pool (Gunnlaugsson et al., 2000). The Reykir low temperature field, approximately 17 km from the centre of Reykjavik, was developed in the 1930s and further research later led to the development of another field, Ellidaar, within the city bound- aries. Today, these fields are providing water with temperatures ranging from 85–130°C from 52 wells. Reykjavik Energy is manag- ing the district heating in Reykjavik and these three fields have a capacity of 2250 l/s and provide 74% of the hot water consumption for district heating in the capital, while heated water pumped from Nesjavellir high temperature field c. 30 km east of the capital pro- vides the remaining requirements (Gunnlaugsson et al., 2000). Geothermal energy is abundant in Iceland with more than 250 low temperature areas straddling the volcanic zone and more than 25 high temperature areas within the volcanic zone (Figure 1). Thus, in most communities around the country exploration and development of both low and high temperature geothermal fields has, through the years, been successful to such an extent that today 89% of the house- holds in Iceland are heated with geothermal energy (Björnsson, 2006). Geothermal energy is used for a wide variety of purposes in Iceland such as greenhouse, industrial drying, carbon dioxide pro- duction, fish farming, swimming pools and snow melting, and amounts to a share of 26.8% of the total utilization of geothermal energy in Iceland, while space heating accounts for 57.4% and elec- tricity generation the remaining part. In total geothermal energy cov- ers 55% of the primary energy consumption in Iceland. Geothermal (ground-source) heat pumps Geothermal (ground-source) heat pumps (GHP) are one of the fastest growing applications of renewable energy in the world, with annual increases of 10% in about 33 countries over the past 10 years. Its main advantage is that it uses normal ground or groundwater tem- peratures (between about 5 and 30°C), which are available in all countries of the world. Most of this growth has occurred in the United States and Europe, though interest is developing in other countries such as Japan, China and Turkey. The present worldwide installed capacity is estimated at almost 15,400 MWt (thermal) and the annual energy use is about 87,500 TJ (24,300 GWh). The actual number of equivalent installed units (12 kW) is around 1,500,000, but the data are incomplete. Table 8 lists the countries with the high- est use of GHPs. GHPs come in two basic configurations: ground-coupled (closed loop) which are installed horizontally or vertically (Figure 4a), and groundwater (open loop) systems (Figure 4b), which are installed in wells and lakes. In the ground-coupled system, a closed Figure 4 a) Closed loop heat pump systems (source: Geo-Heat Center); b) Open loop heat pumps systems (source: Geo-Heat Center). Figure 5 Desuperheater in heating (a) and cooling (b) mode (source: Geo-Heat Center). Table 8 Leading countries using GHP (Curtis et al., 2005). March 2008PDF Image | Antioxidant potential of oregano (Oreganum vulgare L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and thyme ( ymus vulgaris L.): application of oleoresins in vegetable oil
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