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geothermal resources normally uses temperatures below 150 ̊C. The main advantage of using geothermal energy for direct-use projects in this low- to intermediate-temperature range is that these resources are more widespread and exist in at least 80 countries at economic drilling depths. In addition, there are no conversion efficiency losses and projects can commonly use conventional water-well drilling and off-the-shelf heating and cooling equipment (allowing for the tem- perature and chemistry of the fluid). Most projects can be on line in less than a year. Projects can be on a small scale such as for an indi- vidual home, single greenhouse or aquaculture pond, but can also be a large scale operation such as for district heating/cooling, food and lumber drying, and mineral ore extraction. It is often necessary to isolate the geothermal fluid from the user side to prevent corrosion and scaling. Care must be taken to prevent oxygen from entering the system (geothermal water normally is oxy- gen free), and dissolved gases and minerals such as boron, arsenic, and hydrogen sulfide must be removed or isolated as they are harm- ful to plants and animals. On the other hand carbon dioxide, which often occurs in geothermal water, can be extracted and used for car- bonated beverages or to enhance growth in greenhouses. The typical equipment for a direct-use system is illustrated in Figure 2, and includes downhole and circulation pumps, heat exchangers (nor- mally the plate type), transmission and distribution lines (normally insulated pipes), heat extraction equipment, peaking or back-up plants (usually fossil fuel fired) to reduce the use of geothermal flu- ids and reduce the number of wells required, and fluid disposal sys- tems (injection wells). Geothermal energy can usually meet 95% of the annual heating or cooling demand, yet only be sized for 50% of the peak load. A summary of direct-use installed capacity and annual energy use are as follows: geothermal heat pumps 56.5% and 33.2%; bathing/swimming/spas 17.7% and 28.8%, space heating (including district heating) 14.9% and 20.2%; greenhouse heating 4.8% and 7.5%; aquaculture 2.2% and 4.2%; industrial 1.8% and 4.2%; agri- cultural drying 0.6% and 0.8%, cooling and snow melting 1.2% and 0.7%; and others 0.3% and 0.4%. District heating is approximately 80% of the space heating use. Figure 3 illustrates direct-use applica- tions. The leading countries in the world are shown in Table 6. In terms of the contribution of geothermal direct-use to the national energy budget, two countries stand out: Iceland and Turkey. In Iceland, it provides 89% of the country’s space heating needs, which is important since heating is required almost all year and saves about US$100M in imported oil. Turkey has increased it’s installed capacity over the past five years from 820 MWt to 1,495 MWt, mostly for district heating systems. A summary of some of the significant geothermal direct-use contributions to var- ious countries is shown in Table 7. 143 Figure 2 Typical components of a direct-use heating system. Figure 3 Examples of direct-use applications (Courtesy of Geothermal Education Office). Table 6 Top direct-use countries (Lund et al., 2005). Table 7 National geothermal direct-use contributions. Episodes, Vol. 31, No. 1PDF Image | Antioxidant potential of oregano (Oreganum vulgare L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and thyme ( ymus vulgaris L.): application of oleoresins in vegetable oil
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