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loop of pipe, placed either horizontally (1 to 2 m deep) or vertically (50 to 70 m deep) is placed in the ground and a water-antifreeze solu- tion is circulated through the plastic pipes (high density polyethyl- ene) to either collect heat from the ground in the winter or reject heat to the ground in the summer (Rafferty, 1997). The open loop system uses ground water or lake water directly in the heat exchanger and then discharges it into another well, into a stream or lake, or on the ground (say for irrigation), depending upon local laws. The type cho- sen depends upon the soil and rock type at the installation, the land available and/or if a water well can be drilled economically or is already on site. A desuperheater can be provided to use reject heat in the sum- mer and some input heat in the winter for the domestic hot water heating as shown in Figure 5. A small amount of electricity input is required to run a compressor; however, the energy output is in the order of four times this input. A desuperheater provides heat to the domestic hot water in the geothermal heat pump heating and cooling cycles. During heating (Figure 5a), heat can be removed for the desuperheater before it is provided to the normal heating system, however, with a loss in efficiency. During cooling (Figure 5b), heat can be rejected to the desuperheater before it is rejected to the ground or ground-water with no loss in efficiency. Unfortunately, a backup domestic hot water system must be provided, as the heat pump does not run 100% of the time, but does provide as much as 30 to 50% of the domestic hot water heating requirements which can be stored in a traditional insulated hot water tank. See Curtis et al. (2005) and Lund et al. (2003) for more background material. Nordic countries The obvious leader in geothermal heat pump installation is Sweden with many shallow bores and several very deep drillings, followed by Denmark with their two district heating plants. A summary of installations in the Nordic Countries is as follows (Table 9—based mainly of 2005 data; Sweden 2006 data). (assuming 3,500 full-load operating hours/yr). The total for Den- mark is therefore 330 MWt and 4,400 TJ/year (1,222 GWh/yr). Finland Based on limited information, approximately 10,000 geother- mal heat pump units have been installed in Finland, producing 484 TJ/year (134 GWh/yr) from an installed capcity of 80.5 MWt, assuming 4,000 equivalent full-load hours per year based on 2000 data from Kukkonen. Based on data from the Finnish Heat Pump Association (Suomen Lampopoumppuyhdistys—www.ivlampop- umput.fi/eng.html), heat pump sales (both air-source and geothermal types) have increased annually by 50–100% over the last five years, so that in 2005 the estimated number of installed units was 30,000 of which geothermal was 25,000 units (Hirvon, 2002). A standard Fin- ish residence of 150 m2 uses an average of 20,000 kWh/year, assum- ing a 5–8 kWt capacity unit (average COP of 3.1). Thus, the total installed capacity in Finland in 2002 was 162.5 MWt, using 1,220 TJ/year of geothermal energy (based on an average capacity of 6.5 kW). Extrapolating this to 2007, the estimated values are 30,000 geothermal heat pump units with an installed capacity of 195 MWt, using 2,160 TJ/year (600 GWh/year). Ground-source heat pumps in 2005 had captured 20 to 40% of the heating market shares in the country, increasing from less than one percent in 1995 and 13% in 2001. The average investment cost for a system is 16,000 Euros and the annual operating cost is 437 Euros. This compares to air source heat pumps of 9,000 Euros investment cost and 750 Euro annual operating cost. Air source units presently capture 10–30% of the heating system market. Iceland Geothermal heat pumps are utilized on a limited basis, with reports of only three locations: Akureyri, Grenivik and an unknown site in 2005. The total installed capacity is 4.0 MW producing 20 TJ/yr (5.6 GWh/yr) of space heating. Only two units are reported installed with a COP of 4.75 (Ragnarsson, 2005). Recent informa- tion (personal communication with Danielsson, 2007) indicates that few geothermal heat pumps have been installed in Iceland due to the readily available higher temperature geothermal resources used for space heating (there is little or no need for space cooling) and the low heat transfer coefficient of basaltic rock. One of note is a closed loop system using a 300 m deep well with an annual output of approxi- mately 40,000 kWh and a COP of 3.3. Interestingly, about 15 air-to- air heat pumps have been installed since 2005, which are working extremely well. However, the geothermal and air-to-air units are rel- atively unknown in Iceland, and as a result not well accepted. Norway Norway is not considered a geothermal country; however about 150 geothermal heat pump systems sized for commercial or multi- family buildings have been installed (Midttrømme, 2005). Tradition- ally, these systems are used for heating only, but in some the exhaust ventilation is reinjected (stored underground) to provide additional heat for use in the winter. Increased interest in cooling in the com- mercial and industrial sectors is favoring ground-source heat pumps and underground thermal energy storage systems. As of 2003, there were 55,100 heat pumps installed in Norway, of which 5% were geothermal (i.e., 2,755). Norway has one of the largest geothermal heat pump installations in Europe, the system uses 180 boreholes to provide 9 MWt for heating and 6 MWt for cooling a school, shop- ping center, hotel offices and residential area covering a total of 180,000 m2. In 2005, the total number of installed geothermal heat pump units was estimated at 14,000, with a capacity of 600 MWt. Over 90% of these installations are vertical boreholes of the ground- coupled type with a single U-type pipe installed. No figures are available on annual energy use, but using 2,000 full-load hours per years and a COP of 3.5, the annual energy use is estimated at 3,085 TJ/yr (857 GWh/yr). 145 Table 9 Geothermal heat pump installation data for the Nordic countries. Denmark Denmark is noted for the two district heating plants using absorption heat pumps. The older installation, in operation since 1984, at Thisted in northern Jutland (Jylland), extracts heat from a 44 ̊C, 19% salinity groundwater produced from 1.25 km depth (Mahler and Magtengaard, 2005). In 2000–2001, the plant was enlarged to 7 MWt capacity, producing 80 TJ/year (22 GWh/yr) of heat from 200 m3/hr of water, which is then reinjected. The most recent installation, the Margretheholm plant in Copenhagen, started operation in the fall of 2004. Absorption heat pumps use water from a well. A deviated production well and a vertical injection well have been drilled to produce heat from a 73 ̊C sandstone aquifer. The Margretheholm plant has a capacity of 14 MWt and energy use of 380 TJ/year (106 GWh/yr), utilizing 235 m3/hr of 19% salinity water. A further 250 groundwater-based heat pumps and 43,000 other types of pumps (about 10 to 20% of which are vertical closed- loop) are also in operation. They extract approximately 3940 TJ/yr (1095 GWh/yr). The estimated installed capacity is 309 MWt Episodes, Vol. 31, No. 1PDF Image | Antioxidant potential of oregano (Oreganum vulgare L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and thyme ( ymus vulgaris L.): application of oleoresins in vegetable oil
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