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shallower and less costly. These shallow depth geothermal resources occur due to: (1) intrusion of molten rock (magma) from depth, con- vecting great quantities of heat upwards; (2) high surface heat flow, due to a thin crust and high temperature gradient; (3) ascent of groundwater that has circulated to depths of several kilometers and been heated due to the normal temperature gradient; (4) thermal blanketing or insulation of deep rocks by thick formation of rocks such as shale whose thermal conductivity is low; and (5) anomalous heating of shallow rock by decay of radioactive elements, perhaps augmented by thermal blanketing (Wright, 1998). Geothermal resources are usually classified as shown in Table 1, modeled after White and Williams (1975). These geothermal resources range from the mean annual ambient temperature of around 20 ̊C to over 300 ̊C. In general, resources above 150 ̊C are used for electric power generation, although power has recently been generated at Chena Hot Springs Resort in Alaska using a 74 ̊C geo- thermal resource (Lund, 2006). Resources below 150 ̊C are usually used in direct-use projects for heating and cooling. Ambient temper- atures in the 5 to 30 ̊C range can be used with geothermal (ground- source) heat pumps to provide both heating and cooling. Electric power generation Geothermal power is generated by using steam or a secondary working vapor to turn a turbine-generator set to produce electricity. A vapor dominated (dry steam) resource can be used directly, whereas a hot water resource needs to be flashed by reducing the pressure to produce steam. In the case of a low temperature resource, generally below 150 ̊C, the use of a secondary low boiling point fluid (hydrocarbon or water-ammonia mixture) is required to generate the vapor, in a binary or organic Rankin cycle (ORC) plant. Usually a wet or dry cooling tower is used to condense the vapor after it leaves the turbine to maximize the temperature drop between the incoming and outgoing vapor and thus increase the efficiency of the operation. Currently electric power is being produced from geothermal energy in 24 countries over the world with the leading ones shown in Table 4 (Bertani, 2005 and 2007). Since 2000, the installed capacity in the world has increased by almost 1,000 MWe. This increase has been generated partly through installation of new plants as well as through a reinjection project to invigorate The Geysers field in north- ern California. One of the more significant aspects of geothermal power development is the size of its contribution to national and regional capacity and production of countries. The following coun- tries or regions lead in this contribution with more than 5% of the electrical energy supplied by geothermal power based on data from WGC2005 and is shown in Table 5 (Bertani, 2005). 141 Table 1 Geothermal resource types ( ̊C). Table 4 Leading countries in electric power generation from geothermal energy (>100 MWe)(Bertani, 2005 and 2007). Worldwide utilization of geothermal energy The utilization of geothermal energy resources falls into two categories, energy for electric power generation and direct-use, where space heating is the principal constituent of the latter. The lat- est numbers based on reports at the World Geothermal Congress in 2005 (WGC2005) show that geothermal energy is currently used in 72 countries (Lund, et al., 2005; Bertani, 2005 and 2007). In Table 2 and 3 the figures of worldwide and regional geothermal electric and direct-use capacity is presented. Further details of the present installed electric power capacity and generation, and direct-use of geothermal energy can be found in Bertani (2005, 2007), and Lund, Freeston and Boyd (2005). Table 5 National and regional geothermal power contributions. Table 2 Total geothermal use in 2005 (based on reports at the World Geothermal Congress 2005 and Bertani, 2007). Table 3 Summary of regional geothermal use in 2005. Episodes, Vol. 31, No. 1 Since 2000, additional plants have been installed in Costa Rica, France on Guadeloupe in the Caribbean, Iceland, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, and Philippines. In 2004 Germany installed a 210 kWe binary plant at Neustadt Glewe and a 6 MWe plant has been installed on Papua New Guinea to generate electricity for the remote Lihir mine. Russia has completed a new 50 MWe plant at Kamchatka. More recently, a 200 kW binary plant using 74 ̊C geothermal water and 4 ̊C cooling water was installed at Chena Hot Springs Resort in Alaska (Lund, 2006).PDF Image | Antioxidant potential of oregano (Oreganum vulgare L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and thyme ( ymus vulgaris L.): application of oleoresins in vegetable oil
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