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140 by John W. Lund1, Leif Bjelm2, Gordon Bloomquist3, and Anette K. Mortensen4 Characteristics, development and utilization of geothermal resources – a Nordic perspective 1 Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, Oregon, USA. E-mail: John.Lund@oit.edu 2 Engineering Geology Department, Lund University, Lund, Sweden. E-mail: leif.bjelm@tg.lth.se 3 WSU Energy Program, Washington State University, Olympia, Washington, USA. E-mail: BloomquistG@energy.wsu.edu 4 Iceland GeoSurvey, Reykjavík, Iceland. E-mail: Anette.Mortensen@isor.is Geothermal energy is classified as a renewable energy source and it utilizes the heat generated in the earth pri- marily from the natural radioactive decay of isotopes of uranium, thorium and potassium. Heat is extracted from the earth to generate geothermal energy via a carrier, usually water occurring either in the liquid or steam phase. In the late 19th century and the early 20th cen- tury, the first developments of geothermal resources for power generation and household heating got underway successfully. Many of these geothermal fields are still being utilized today, proving their sustainability. Today geothermal energy is being utilized in more than 72 countries around the world and of the Nordic countries Iceland and Sweden have been in the forefront in each of their respective fields. While geothermal heat pumps are widely used for space heating in Sweden, geothermal energy covers 55% of the primary energy consumption in Iceland where it is used for space heating, power gener- ation and industrial purposes. Future developments aim at expanding the range of viable geothermal resources by improving the capabilities to generate electricity from geothermal resources at temperatures as low as 100°C, as well as developing geothermal resources where water needs to be introduced, so-called hot dry rock resources. But the biggest expansion is expected to continue to be in the installations of geothermal heat pumps. Introduction Early humans probably used geothermal water that occurred in nat- ural pools and hot springs for cooking, bathing and to keep warm. We have archeological evidence that the Indians of the Americas occupied sites around these geothermal resources for over 10,000 years to recuperate from battle and take refuge. Many of their oral legends describe these places and other volcanic phenomena. Recorded history shows uses by Romans, Japanese, Turks, Ice- landers, Central Europeans and the Maori of New Zealand for bathing, cooking and space heating. Baths in the Roman Empire, the middle kingdom of the Chinese, and the Turkish baths of the Ottomans were some of the early uses of balneology, where body health, hygiene and discussions were the social custom of the day. This custom has been extended to geothermal spas in Japan, Ger- many, Iceland, and countries of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Americas and New Zealand. Early industrial applica- tions include chemical extraction from the natural manifestations of steam, pools and mineral deposits in the Larderello region of Italy, with boric acid being extracted commercially starting in the early 1800s. At Chaudes-Aigues in the heart of France, the world’s first geothermal district heating system was started in the 14th century and is still in use. The oldest geothermal district heating project in the United States is on Warm Springs Avenue in Boise, Idaho, which came on line in 1892 and continues to provide space heating for up to 450 homes. The first use of geothermal energy for electric power production was in Italy with experimental work by Prince Gionori Conti between 1904 and 1905. The first commercial power plant (250 kWe) was commissioned in 1913 at Larderello, Italy. An experimental plant was installed in The Geysers in 1932 and provided power to the local resort. These developments were followed in New Zealand at Wairakei in 1958; an experimental plant at Pathe, Mexico in 1959; and the first commercial plant at The Geysers in the United States in 1960. Japan followed with 23 MWe at Matsukawa in 1966. All of these early plants used steam directly from the earth (dry steam fields), except for New Zealand, which was the first to use flashed or separated steam for running the turbines. The former USSR pro- duced power from the first true binary power plant, 680 kWe using 81oC water at Paratunka on the Kamchatka peninsula—the lowest temperature at that time. Iceland first produced power at Namafjall in the northern part of the country, from a 3 MWe non-condensing turbine. These were followed by plants in El Salvador, China, Indonesia, Kenya, Turkey, Philippines, Portugal (Azores), Greece and Nicaragua in the 1970s and 1980s. Later plants were installed in Thailand, Argentina, Taiwan, Australia, Costa Rica, Austria, Guatemala, Ethiopia, with the latest installations in Germany and Papua New Guinea. (See Cataladi, et al., 1999 for more background on the historical uses of geothermal energy.) Types of geothermal resources Geothermal energy comes from the natural heat of the earth primar- ily due to the decay of the naturally radioactive isotopes of uranium, thorium and potassium. Because of the internal heat, the Earth’s sur- face heat flow averages 82 mW/m2 which amounts to a total heat loss of about 42 million megawatts. The estimated total thermal energy above mean surface temperature to a depth of 10 km is 1.3!1027 J, equivalent to burning 3.0!1017 barrels of oil. Since the global energy consumptions for all types of energy are equivalent to use of about 100 million barrels of oil per day, the Earth’s energy to a depth of 10 kilometers could theoretically supply all of mankind’s energy needs for six million years (Wright, 1998). On average, the temperature of the Earth increases with depth at about 30 ̊C/km. Thus, assuming a conductive gradient and mean sur- face ambient temperature, the temperature of the earth at 10 km would be over 300 ̊C. However, most geothermal exploration and use occurs where the gradient is higher, and thus where drilling is March 2008PDF Image | Antioxidant potential of oregano (Oreganum vulgare L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and thyme ( ymus vulgaris L.): application of oleoresins in vegetable oil
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