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142 Electric power generation from geothermal energy in the Nordic countries Iceland Iceland is located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which transects the country from southwest to northeast along an active volcanic rift zone, where many high-temperature fields (>200°C at 1 km) are located. Iceland is therefore currently the only Nordic country where geothermal energy can be used to generate electricity. Electricity is generated from six power plants located on central volcanoes and systems within the active volcanic zone of Iceland (Figure 1). The first geothermal power plant in Iceland, a 3 MWe back pressure unit, was installed at Bjarnaflag on the Namafjall field in northern Iceland, and was put into production in 1969. In 1977, another two power plants were put into production, at Krafla and Svartsengi. At the Krafla central volcano in northern Iceland the National Power Com- pany (Landsvirkjun) is operating a power plant with two 30 MWe double-flash condensing turbines (Ragnarsson, 2005). Electricity is produced from three well-fields in the Krafla geothermal system with temperatures of up to 320–350°C. The Svartsengi co-genera- tion power plant is located on the Reykjanes peninsula. The plant uti- lizes geothermal brines at 240°C with a salinity two-thirds that of seawater. The power plant is owned by Sudurnes Regional Heating and has gradually been enlarged over the years so that currently the installed capacity is 200 MWt for hot water production and 45 MWe for power generation. Sudurnes Regional Heating commenced gen- erating power in the new Reykjanes power plant in 2006. The power plant has an installed capacity of 100 MWe, which is generated from geothermal brine at a temperature of 280–310°C and with the salin- ity of seawater. Two power plants operated by Reykjavík Energy are located at Hengill central volcano in southwestern Iceland (Figure 1). Nesjavellir is a co-generation power plant, where fresh water is heated by geothermal steam in heat exchangers (Gunnarsson et al., 1992). The plant began production in 1990, initially providing hot water mainly for district heating in the capital of Reykjavik, but since 1998 has also been generating electricity. Today, the installed capacity is 120 MWe and 290 MWt. Electric power generation com- menced at Hellisheidi power plant south of Hengill in 2006, which in the first stage has an installed capacity of 90 MWe, but drilling is currently in progress for further expansion of the power plant. Finally, among the first of its kind, a 2 MWe Kalina cycle binary generator was installed at Húsavík in northern Iceland in 2001. The plant is the only one located outside the active volcanic zone and uti- lizes 124–128°C hot water from the Hveravellir geothermal field, which heats a mixture of water and ammonia in a heat exchanger (Hjartarson et al. 2005). This power plant provides about two thirds of the electricity requirements of the community at Húsavík. With the launch of Reykjanes and Hellisheidi power plants in 2006 the installed capacity has almost doubled in Iceland bringing it up to 422 MWe (Björnsson, 2006). Further developments are expected in the coming years to meet increasing demands from the expanding aluminum industry in Iceland. With the incentive to enhance the economics of geothermal energy, the Iceland Deep Drilling Project has been underway since 2000 and is expected to start drilling a well to a depth of 4–5 km in the Krafla geothermal system in 2008. The project aims to encounter fluids at supercritical conditions of 450–600°C (Fridleifsson and Elders, 2005). A successful outcome would give a unique opportu- nity to test the production and feasibility of utilizing supercritical flu- ids from the deep-seated parts of geothermal reservoirs. Direct utilization worldwide The main direct-use applications of geothermal resources are for heating and cooling. The main utilization categories are: (1) swim- ming, bathing and balneology; (2) space heating and cooling includ- ing district energy systems; (3) agricultural applications such as greenhouse and soil heating; (4) aquaculture application such as pond and raceway water heating; (5) industrial applications such as mineral extraction, food and grain drying; and, (6) geothermal (ground- source) heat pumps, used for both heating and cooling. Direct-use of Figure 1 Geological map of Iceland with high and low temperature areas. Based on Geological map of Iceland (1:1 000 000) by Haukur Jóhanesson and Krislján Sæmundsson 1999, Icelandic Institute of Natural History. March 2008PDF Image | Antioxidant potential of oregano (Oreganum vulgare L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and thyme ( ymus vulgaris L.): application of oleoresins in vegetable oil
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