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Sensors 2021, 21, 3119 2 of 23 currency or generic assets usually involves transactions between blockchain participants. In recent public blockchains such as Ethereum, agreements between participants are formalized through smart contracts represented by scripts. These scripts are validated as part of transactions by the consensus algorithm and, thus, once validated, the smart contracts are tamper-proof like the other data registered in the blockchain [4]. In addition, protocols are applied to achieve secure execution of smart contracts [5]. All participants execute the code of a smart contract in the same way and can check if the obligations established by the contract are met. Therefore, in addition to integrity, blockchain allows transparency because any participant can consult the data registered, including the smart contracts. This has been exploited to integrate blockchain with supply chain management, which, in the case of the IoT ecosystem, allows guaranteeing the origin and trustworthiness of data without the need for intermediaries [6]. The IoT devices can be fully autonomous to directly trade their data with third parties through smart contracts that govern all policies of data trade and ownership rights [7]. Ownership information can be included in smart contracts by means of tokens. Since a token is the digital representation of an asset in the blockchain, there are two main types of tokens, fungible and non-fungible tokens (NFTs), depending on the represented asset. Fungible tokens are identical and interchangeable tokens (such as a fiat currency), which allow accounting and billing transactions. Non-fungible tokens are unique and non- interchangeable tokens (such as notarial instruments or artwork collectables), which allow traceability of unique physical or non-physical possessions. An example of a non-physical possession in the context of IoT is the capability to access to resources or services. An IoT device acting as provider can represent by NFTs the resources or services provided. If it grants one of these NFTs to an IoT device acting as client, the client device is authorized to access the unique resource or service represented by the NFT [8,9]. Another wide use of NFTs is to represent physical products. Each product manufactured by a cloud service can be represented by a NFT such that its price, provenance, and ownership can be traced by the blockchain [10]. Applying a finer tokenization, each component of a product can be represented by a NFT such that the creation of a product from its components is registered in the blockchain as the minting of a new token from the tokens representing its components. In this way, not only the origin but also the subsequent transformation of a product can be traced [11]. This paper focuses on exploiting NFTs to make IoT devices secure, from a hardware and software point of view, such that the data they provide become trusted. The blockchain technology is exploited not only to ensure the trustworthiness of the hardware device manufacturing, but also to guarantee the security of its software. Otherwise, all security fails [12]. Concerning the software, special attention is given to the secure boot of the microcontroller in the IoT device hardware, whose objective is to check that the code to be executed is the expected one, and to the secure communication with owners and users, which can change device software. Ethereum blockchain is considered since it is one of the most extended public blockchains. In the Ethereum community, which develops ERC (Ethereum Request for Comments) standards [13], the ERC-20 standard defines fungible tokens and the ERC-721 standard defines NFTs. An important attribute of an ERC-721 NFT is its owner, which is identified uniquely by their blockchain account (BCA) address. A blockchain participant interacts with the blockchain through a BCA, which is composed of a pair of cryptographic private and public keys and a unique address derived from the public key. In addition to an owner, a unique identifier is associated with an ERC-721 NFT. In the proposals where the ERC-721 tokens represent physical goods, the token identifiers are usually related to the logical attributes of the product, such as its bar or QR code [10], or to the product information data, such as disposal instructions and expiration dates [11]. The problem is that these identifiers are not related to something intrinsic of the product, i.e., they are not true product identifiers since they can be modified, copied or transferred to another product. To avoid this problem, crypto anchors were proposed as a tight link between thePDF Image | Binding IOT to Smart Non-Fungible Tokens Using PUF
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