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Sensors 2021, 21, 3119 3 of 23 digital and physical domains [14]. Silicon physical unclonable functions (PUFs), which exploit the variabilities of the semiconductor manufacturing process [15], can be treated as crypto anchors for electronic products such as IoT devices. The binding of ERC-721 NFTs with physical IoT devices using PUFs was proposed in [16]. That work included, as a new attribute in ERC-721 NFTs, the blockchain account (BCA) address associated with the IoT device. The use of PUFs in the hardware of the IoT device was proposed to reconstruct the private key from which the BCA address of the device in its associated token is derived. In addition, that work also included, as a new attribute in ERC-721 NFTs, the blockchain account (BCA) address associated with the user of the IoT device, such that not only the ownership but also the use of the device can be traced by the blockchain with the same token. However, that work did not allow detecting if the device is not operating correctly, if the link between the device and the NFT is broken, or if the engagement with owner and user is lost at some time. To avoid these security flaws, this paper introduces a new NFT, named smart NFT, which strengthens the link between the IoT device and the NFT used to represent it. The main contributions of this paper are the following: • The proposal of smart NFTs to represent IoT devices that can participate actively in the blockchain by its BCA (to receive and provide information, and to sign transactions) and that can operate in several modes. The attributes defined for smart NFTs are not only the owner BCA address (as in the ERC-721 standard), the user BCA address, and the device BCA address (as in [16]). In addition, token states are included to trace the operating modes of the IoT device, public data are added to trace if secure communication channels are established between a device and its owner and user, and timestamps and timeouts are added to register the last validation of the link between the token and the device. • A solution that allows IoT devices proving during their lifetime that their hardware and software are trusted because they are able to be bound to their smart NFTs and operate as expected. Physical attacks, which are common at IoT devices, e.g., their replacement by counterfeit devices or modifications of the content of their non-volatile memory, are detected after a controlled delay time thanks to the use of PUFs and the execution of a secure boot process. • A solution that allows registering in the blockchain whenever shared secrets are agreed between devices and owners and between devices and users. From them, fresh session cryptographic keys can be derived for secure communication. Therefore, the trustworthiness of the devices can be traced even if there is a change of owners and users that manage them. • A whole demonstration of the proposal developed with ESP32-based IoT devices and Ethereum blockchain. In this demonstration, the internal SRAM of the ESP32 microcontroller acts as the PUF and a true random number generator (TRNG), and it is controlled by a firmware developed in ESP-IDF (Espressif IoT Development Framework) [17]. The smart contract was developed with Remix [18], and the DApp (Decentralized Application) interfaces were created for the roles of manufacturer, owner, and user of the devices. These DApps were connected with the blockchain using a web interface and Metamask [19], and with the device using UART (Universal Asynchronous Transmitter Receiver) serial communication. The rest of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 reviews the related work on PUFs and NFTs associated with IoT devices. Section 3 describes the smart non-fungible tokens proposed to represent IoT devices, since the related work of IoT paradigm requires an extension of the ERC-721 tokens. The way of physically binding IoT devices to smart NFTs using PUFs, as well as the preservation of the bounding by executing trusted software are described in Section 4. The whole demonstration of the proposal is presented in Section 5. Lastly, conclusions are given in Section 6.PDF Image | Binding IOT to Smart Non-Fungible Tokens Using PUF
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