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Energies 2021, 14, 6805 60 of 72 5. Results and Conclusions Technology for the direct extraction and recovery of lithium from brines will be very important for the development of new lithium resources to meet the rising demand for lithium-dependent energy storage. Geothermal brines could become a major new source of lithium both in the United States and elsewhere. In this paper, we expanded our paper that was presented at the 46th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering at Stanford University [328], providing more details on direct lithium extraction technologies and discussing in depth the potential application of these technologies to the extraction of lithium from geothermal brines. The most well-investigated and technologically advanced method for direct lithium extraction from brines is adsorption by metal oxides and hydroxides. Solvent extraction of lithium from brines using lithium-selective solvents and sorption using organic polymer sorbents, including metal-imprinted polymers, are early-stage technologies that show promise. Membrane-based processes are largely used for removing water or interfering ions, rather than for the direct extraction of lithium. Processes based on precipitation and common ion-exchange resins can extract lithium from brines, but are not specific to lithium and therefore are not considered practical for economical lithium extraction from geothermal brines, which have very complex chemistry. Metal oxide and hydroxide sorbents are selective for lithium due to crystalline or layered properties that act like molecular sieves that allow lithium to enter ion-exchange sites, whereas larger ions are sterically excluded. These materials adsorb lithium ions while releasing hydrogen ions in high and neutral pH solutions and release lithium ions while adsorbing hydrogen ions in acidic solutions. The molecular sieve ion-exchange sorbents have been used to extract lithium ions from brines to produce concentrated lithium-ion solutions. The concentrated lithium-ion solution can be further processed into chemicals for the battery industry or other industries. General properties concerning metal oxide and hydroxide sorbents are provided above. The specific details concerning the chemistry and crystalline properties that determine the capacity and specificity of lithium sorption by metal oxides and hydroxides can be found in the cited primary references and in review papers. Currently, MnOx and TiOx derivatives are believed to be promising sorbent materials for the extraction of lithium from geothermal fluids and other brines; however, the full-scale application of MnOx and TiOx sorbents still need to be demonstrated. Aluminum sorbents, which are relatively less expensive, are being used economically to produce lithium chloride from salar brines in South America and continue to be investigated for the extraction of lithium from geothermal brines. Sorption of lithium with inorganic molecular sieve ion-exchange sorbents is widely believed to offer the most likely pathway for the development of economic lithium ex- traction and recovery from Salton Sea geothermal brines. All currently proposed lithium recovery processes for Salton Sea geothermal fluids are based on using molecular sieve ion-exchange sorbents for the extraction of lithium. Although many solid sorbents are entering commercial application against a variety of brines, there is still a need to conduct laboratory and pilot-scale testing of many lithium sorbents against Salton Sea geothermal brines to determine the performance of the sorbents against these complex brines and under real-world conditions. Solvent extraction with crown ethers is a promising area for developing a direct lithium extraction technology, but both fundamental and applied research is needed to advance and validate this technology. Crown ether technology has not been proven using geothermal brines. Other promising low technology readiness level methods include ion-imprinted polymers and cyclic siloxanes. If these technologies can be validated, they have the potential to reduce the need for extensive pretreatment and simplify extraction processes. These early-stage technologies may one day offer second-generation technologies for direct lithium extraction from geothermal fluids. It is apparent that lithium extraction and recovery from geothermal brines are be- coming technically possible, but challenges still remain in developing economically andPDF Image | Recovery of Lithium from Geothermal Brines
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Product and Development Focus for Infinity Turbine
ORC Waste Heat Turbine and ORC System Build Plans: All turbine plans are $10,000 each. This allows you to build a system and then consider licensing for production after you have completed and tested a unit.Redox Flow Battery Technology: With the advent of the new USA tax credits for producing and selling batteries ($35/kW) we are focussing on a simple flow battery using shipping containers as the modular electrolyte storage units with tax credits up to $140,000 per system. Our main focus is on the salt battery. This battery can be used for both thermal and electrical storage applications. We call it the Cogeneration Battery or Cogen Battery. One project is converting salt (brine) based water conditioners to simultaneously produce power. In addition, there are many opportunities to extract Lithium from brine (salt lakes, groundwater, and producer water).Salt water or brine are huge sources for lithium. Most of the worlds lithium is acquired from a brine source. It's even in seawater in a low concentration. Brine is also a byproduct of huge powerplants, which can now use that as an electrolyte and a huge flow battery (which allows storage at the source).We welcome any business and equipment inquiries, as well as licensing our turbines for manufacturing.CONTACT TEL: 608-238-6001 Email: greg@infinityturbine.com (Standard Web Page)