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Geosciences 2018, 8, 56 14 of 18 and their suitability for agro-mining different metals [14,77]. The data from some of these studies are listed below in Table 5. Table 5. List of metal yields reached during agro-mining research. Metal Au Co. Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Pb Tl Zn Zn Plant Species Daucus carota Berkheya coddii Streptanthus polygaloids Alyssum murale Berkheya coddii Streptanthus polygaloids Berkheya coddii Cannabis sativa Iberis intermedia Thlaspi caerulescens Cardaminopsis halleri kg/ha Reference 1.4 [7] 12.6 [85] 100 [6] 105 [86] 100 [14] 100 [3] 121 [2] 26.3 [52] 40 [23] 30.1 [21] 10.3 [17] The experiments presented here are the first examining Li-accumulation in plants with the intention of agro-mining Li. The data shows that EDDS performed as well as EDTA at inducing Li accumulation in these trials. EDDS’s biodegradability in comparison to EDTA’s persistence and performance in these trials make it an ideal candidate for chelate induced agro-mining of Li. The highest concentrations of Li recorded in this study using EDDS as a chelating agent was observed in the plants Brassica napus (2590 mg/kg) and Brassica oleracea (3091 mg/kg). Li prices are at an all-time high and the price is expected to increase in the coming years, having increased massively since the early 21st century from $1590 per metric ton in 2002 to $9100 in 2017 [85]. Brassica napus crops have a yield of around 1.3 tons/ha fresh weight. The moisture content of fresh cut Brassica napus is around 13%, so 1.3 tons yields around 1.1 tons dry plant matter, and 1.1 tons of plant matter should contain approximately 0.26 kg of Li worth around $23.7/ha. A conservative estimate of a crop yield of Brassica oleracea is approximately 50 tons/ha fresh weight. The moisture content of cabbage is commonly >90% so a crop of 50 tons should produce around five tons of dry plant matter. Grown under the conditions set out in this work, five tons of dry plant matter should contain approximately 1.55 kg of Li worth around $141.05/ha. When dried, the leaves of these two Brassica plants are prone to crumbling resulting in a loss of plant matter before transportation. Instead the fresh plant matter could be transported (increasing costs) and used to recover energy (fermentation) before being processed for Lithium. The true potential of agro-mining is still unknown, the technology, despite been around for the last four decades still needs to prove its economic significance. Large-scale agro-mining operations are needed to work through real word challenges and provide “real-life” evidence of profitability [3]. If agro-mining could be combined with other technologies such as forestry, there could be more of an economic incentive for companies to invest in the technology [86]. Genetic modification could also be the future of the technology [23]. The optimising of agronomic practices, such as irrigation and fertilization will increase the efficiency of the agro.mining process [86]. A Li metal agro-mining industry may be wishful thinking right now. However, as suitable rich ore deposits become scarcer in the future, agro-mining may become a more feasible approach and industry may be willing to adopt the technology. Acknowledgments: This study was carried out at EnviroCORE, Department of Science and Health, Institute of Technology Carlow, Ireland. We acknowledge support from the Institute of Technology Carlow President’s Research Fellowship Programme fund and the Development and Research Postgraduate fund. This work was also supported by the Government of Ireland Postgraduate Scholarship Scheme 2016 in conjunction with the Environmental Protection Agency of Ireland. Project ID: GOIPG/2016/703.PDF Image | Induced Plant Accumulation of Lithium
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