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Similar to lipids, understanding the interactions between the protein molecules and GBMs are crucial as they are concerned with nanomaterial toxicity.231 For e.g., Hu et al. reported fetal bovine serum (FBS) can mitigate the cytotoxicity of GO by preventing the direct contact of cell membranes with the nanomaterials.232 However, the interactions between GBMs and protein molecules could be complex as they both depend strongly on their environment (e.g., pH values, etc.). Theoretical studies have predicted that amino acids/proteins could interact with GBMs through vdW interactions (Figure 2.18d)233 and strong 𝜋 − 𝜋 interactions (Figure 2.18e).234, 235 Experimental evidences have demonstrated electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding between functionalised and charged GO with proteins.236 In case of rGO, the hydrophobic interactions dominate as shown by Zhang et al.237 They have found enzyme loadings on rGO increased with increasing levels of rGO reduction, and attributing this behaviour to enhanced hydrophobic interactions between the rGO and the enzyme molecules. Figure 2.18: a-c) TEM images of rGO/BSA, rGO/BSA/Au NPs and GO/BSA/latex NPs, respectively.226 d) MD simulation study showing vdW interactions of L-leucine amino acid molecules on graphene sheet.233 e) MD simulation study showing typical structure of villain headpiece (HP35) protein adsorbed on the graphene surface, revealing strong 𝜋 − 𝜋 interactions (blue regions).235 f) Structure of HFBI protein showing the well- defined hydrophobic regions (green patch) and schematics showing HFBI-facilitated exfoliation of graphene sheets.225 g, h) TEM images of graphene sheets produced from Kish graphite by sonication for 2 min (sonic probe) and 40 min (sonic bath), respectively. i) SEM image of lithographically formed HOPG micro pillars. j) TEM image of thin sheet exfoliated from HOPG pillars.225 Such strong hydrophobic interactions were exploited by other researchers by using proteins such as hydrophobin HFBI225 and lysozyme228 to directly exfoliate graphite Chapter 2 – Graphene: Properties and Production 69PDF Image | PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS OF GRAPHENE AND ITS COMPOSITES
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