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Chapter 2 – Graphene: Properties and Production Figure 2.16: Representative chemical structures of some members of GBMs. SLG: Single-layer graphene, FLG: Few-layer graphene, GO: Graphene oxide, and rGO: Reduced graphene oxide.5 2.5.1. Biocompatible materials as surfactants In general, due to different production methods for obtaining GBMs for bio- analysis, several issues were faced including; aggregation or poor dispersibility in solvents or in physiological conditions.208 Covalent and non-covalent functionalisation of GBMs is often adapted to address this issue, thereby producing biocompatible GBMs facilitating further analysis. Functionalisation (covalent or non-covalent) of GBMs using biocompatible polymers like polyethylene glycol (PEG) (PEGylation) is one of the commonly studied methods for producing biocompatible GBMs. PEGylated GO (covalent functionalised) showed excellent stability in the physiological solutions and have been employed for drug delivery and live cell imaging.209, 210 Moreover, the PEGylated GO showed modulated effect on cytotoxicity on series of cell lines without affecting the cell viability up to 100 μg/ml.209, 210 Yang et al. have carried out in vivo studies on fluorescent labelled PEGylated GO in mice for photo thermal therapy of cancer, showing excellent tumour ablation effect.211 Zhang et al. have shown PEGylated nano-GO (10-30 nm diameter) can be cleared out from the mouse body after intravenous injection, without any noticeable toxicity to the treated animals.212 Similar to PEG, covalent functionalisation of GO with dextran showed excellent stability in the physiological solutions with excellent in vitro biocompatibility and no noticeable in vivo toxicity (mice).213 Pluronic-functionalised GBMs were also studied as biocompatible materials. Li et al. dispersed commercially available pristine graphene in 1 % Pluronic F108, showing dosage dependant in vitro cytotoxic effects on murine macrophages.214 Duch et al. have shown direct administration of GO into mice lung resulted in severe and persistent lung injury.215 In contrast, pristine well-dispersed graphene produced from direct LPE of 65PDF Image | PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS OF GRAPHENE AND ITS COMPOSITES
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