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graphite using 2 w/v.% Pluronic F108NF as surfactant, showed significant reduction in pulmonary toxicity compared with GO.215 Biocompatible cationic polymers like polyethyleneimine (PEI) were used to non- covalently functionalise GO (GO-PEI).216 Owing to its improved stability in physiological solutions, at higher concentrations (300 μg/ml) GO-PEI displayed higher human epithelial carcinoma cell viability compared to the GO.216 In another study, Wojtoniszak et al. investigated the toxicity of GO and rGO dispersed using different biocompatible surfactants including: PEG, Pluronic P123 and sodium deoxycholate (DOC, bile surfactant), on mice fibroblast cells.217 Despite the stability in physiological conditions, they found that toxicity response was surfactant- and concentration of nanomaterial-dependant. Within their experimental conditions, PEGylated GO showed best biocompatibility with lowest toxicity compared to other nanomaterials.217 Recent study by Conroy et al. showed no detectable cellular morphology changes of cultured human lung epithelial cell lines A549 grown on pristine graphene films (CVD- grown and LPE using SC bile surfactant) or when exposed to LPE graphene flakes (0.1 to 5 μg/ml).218 Moreover they found ultrafine carbon black is more toxic than graphene. 2.5.2. Functional biomolecules as surfactants 2.5.2.1. DNA-based Researchers have explored the use of functional biomaterials such as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid),219-221 lipids222-224 and proteins225-228 to enhance the biocompatibility of GBMs through non-covalent interactions. Patil et al. have used single- stranded DNA (ssDNA) to successfully prepare stable aqueous solution of rGO with concentrations up to 2.5 mg/ml.219 Hydrazine-based reduction of GO in presence of ssDNA resulted in stable aqueous rGO, whereas reduction process in absence of ssDNA followed by its stabilisation in aqueous ssDNA solution was not successful. DNA molecules were principally adsorbed through hydrophobic as well as weak electrostatic/hydrogen bonding interactions between primary amines of the nitrogen bases, and the carboxylic and phenolic groups of the rGO sheets. Due to this, the DNA was oriented with its Chapter 2 – Graphene: Properties and Production 66PDF Image | PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS OF GRAPHENE AND ITS COMPOSITES
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