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Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 1763 10 of 24 conventional formulations for boosting crop production. This implies a potential reduction of about 10–15 times in the applied dose and frequency. Nanocapsules exhibit a high-loading capacity with a gradual release of the substances, representing beneficial aspects for plant growth since the presence of these NPs in soil may affect root nutrient uptake and water transport, as has been addressed in the following sections [160–162]. AuNPs and AgNPs-based nanofertilizers have been developed to synchronize nutrient release with plant uptake. This system reduces nutrient loss, soil and groundwater contamination, and chemical reactions with water, soil, and microorganisms that transform them into unuseful or toxic substances for plants, helping to maintain the soil’s fertility [163–165]. Kang et al. applied 5 mg/L AgNPs fertilizer suspension to red ginseng shoot three times per day at 14-day intervals. After harvesting, they reported that the nanofertilizer had enhanced the ginsenoside content [163]. Nanoencapsulated pesticides and herbicides show enhanced properties in terms of solubility, specificity, permeability, and stability because the nanostructure protects the active substance from early degradation and provides pest control for longer periods [166]. Moreover, control of plant disease-causing phytopathogens, such as bacteria and fungi, can also be achieved by spraying a NPs solution directly on grains, seed, or foliage to inhibit the invasion of plant pathogens [167]. AgNPs green synthesis from Fusarium solani was done by El-Aziz et al. to evaluate their impact on grain borne fungi. The outcome of this research was that sprayed NPs solutions of 4% caused a 0% frequency of fungal pathogens [168]. Gnanadesigan et al. biosynthesized AgNPs using the leaf extract of Rhizophora mucronata to evaluate its potential larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus, two vectors that affect workers inagriculturalfields,causingdengueandfilariasis[169]. Theadoptionofhigh-techagriculturalsystems can reduce or even eliminate the negative environmental influence of modern agriculture, as well as enhancing the quality and quantity of crop production [170]. Although NPs for these applications provide a lot of benefits, their different properties give them different toxicities, which need further research [171–173]. 5. Interactions of NPs with Plants: Accumulation and Harmful Effects of NPs in Plants and Crops AuNPs and AgNPs are used in different commercial products for agricultural labor, such as nanofertilizers, nanopesticides, and nanoherbicides. The nanosize to which many useful properties are attributable constitutes the factor that can enhance their adverse effects too [174]. Recently, questioning is being raised about their toxicity regarding short- and long-term environmental exposure. Special attention should be paid to the interaction between NPs and plants (e.g., crops) when these materials are used within the agricultural field [175]. Ecotoxicological research is required to demonstrate the environmental consequences of plants constantly exposed to these nanomaterials. NPs in contact with plants can enter to the cellular system, translocate their shoots, and accumulate in different parts. In addition to that, there is a potential risk of cycling through different trophic levels [176]. AuNPs and AgNPs accumulation in plants have shown various effects on the transpiration and respiration rate, which alters the photosynthesis process. At the cellular level, these NPs can alter plants’ growth rate and chlorophyll levels, while on the sub-cellular level, investigations have reported organelles modifications and NPs deposition close to the plasmatic membrane [177]. Moreover, the uptake, translocation, and accumulation depend on NPs’ size, type, chemical composition, and stability, as well as the plant species [178]. Judy et al. used the model organisms Nicotiana tabacum, Xanthi, and Manduca sexta to evaluate plant uptake and possible trophic transfer upon the exposure to AuNPs of 5, 10, and 15 nm. Their results confirmed trophic transfer and biomagnification of the NPs from a primary producer to a primary consumer by different mean factors related to the NPs’ size treatments [179]. Hashimoto et al. found that accumulated AgNPs could translocate to roots and shoots of two terrestrial agro-crops— Vigna unguiculata and Triticum aestivum. Recently, it has been demonstrated that AgNPs under aerobic soil conditions are able to maintain their intact nature (88%), while a transformation to Ag2S can also occur in the same extension [180].PDF Image | Green Synthesis of Gold and Silver Nanoparticles from Plant Extracts
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