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2 H. Zhang et al./Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 53 (2016) 1–40 2. 3. Sensible heat storage .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10 Latent heat storage ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 10 3.1. Main characteristics .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 10 3.2. PCMs classification ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 10 3.3. Moderate or high temperature PCMs ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 11 3.4. Specific PCM applications ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13 3.4.1. Latent heat storage with cryogenics .............................................................................................................................................................................. 13 3.4.2. Latent heat storage with steam accumulators ........................................................................................................................................................... 14 3.4.3. Moderate to high temperature PCMs ............................................................................................................................................................................ 16 3.4.4. The growing importance of lithium salts ..................................................................................................................................................................... 16 3.5. Mechanisms to improve phase change material applications ............................................................................................................................................... 18 3.5.1. General principles ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 18 3.5.2. Review of applied enhancement methods .................................................................................................................................................................. 19 3.6. Nanoparticle-encapsulated PCMs .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21 3.7. Cascades of PCM systems ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22 Thermo-chemical heat storage ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23 4.1. Principles .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23 4.2. Thermodynamic assessment ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23 4.2.1. Gibbs’ free energy and work recovery ........................................................................................................................................................................... 23 4.2.2. Calculation results ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 24 4.3. Kinetics from thermogravimetric analysis .................................................................................................................................................................................... 24 Containment of LHS and TCS materials ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26 5.1. Preliminary selection concerns and criteria ................................................................................................................................................................................. 26 5.1.1. Pressure upon phase change or chemical reaction .................................................................................................................................................... 26 5.1.2. Design of the encapsulation .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 27 5.1.3. Preliminary selection criteria ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 28 5.2. Relevant properties of E-materials .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 28 5.2.1. INCONEL alloy 600 [187] .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28 5.2.2. Incoloy 825 [191] ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 28 5.2.3. Extruded tubular ceramics [192–196] .......................................................................................................................................................................... 29 5.3. Experimental design data ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29 PCM/TCS integration in TES requires heat carriers .................................................................................................................................................................................. 30 6.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 30 6.2. Powders as novel heat carriers in renewable energy systems ............................................................................................................................................... 30 6.2.1. Dense up-flow of particles ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 32 6.2.2. Particle loops in SPT and CSP applications .................................................................................................................................................................. 32 6.2.3. Recent experimental results ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 32 Conclusion and recommendation for priority research ......................................................................................................................................................................... 35 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 36 References .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 36 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. Introduction 1.1. Global energy and the required CO2 reduction Energy supply is a vital issue, with special concerns of the public regarding the emission of greenhouse gases and the need to reduce the use of fossil fuels [1]. The worldwide economic crisis since 2008 added additional challenges [2], leading worldwide governments to enact new policies and financial incentives in support of renew- able energies, enhancing their implementation and development, while simultaneously creating valuable new business opportuni- ties for companies involved in this energy sector [3,4]. One of the hot topics in the energy strategy is the capture and storage of thermal energy as applicable to renewable energy concepts and in waste heat recovery: these advanced energy utilization schemes call for the de- velopment and new usage of existing and/or new materials. Based upon the current statistics and predictions of energy consump- tion, the U.S. Energy Information Administration predicated an increase in the total world energy use from 0.15 × 1012 MWh in 2008 to 0.18 × 1012 MWh in 2020, and to 0.23 × 1012 MWh in 2035 [5]. Since crude oil fuels remain an important source of energy, albeit with depleting traditional reserves but with significant current fracking operations, their prices are expected to remain around 60 US$/ barrel for the near future, while 20–40 US$/barrel were valid from 1985 till 2005, but prices of 120–140 US$/barrel are predicted from 2020 onward [5,6]. Because of the use of fossil fuels, current global CO2 emissions are at 30.6 × 109 tpa of CO2 (against 28.2 × 109 tpa in 2005). Without effective measures, it is however expected that world energy- related emissions of CO2 will further increase to 33.5 × 109 tpa in 2015 and 43.2 × 109 tpa in 2035 [5]. The imposed reduction in CO2 emissions will require a combi- nation of detailed strategies and tactics, including (i) a mix of energy generation technologies; (ii) a reduction in energy usage through the use of incentives, technologies, taxes and quotas; (iii) maxi- mizing CO2 absorption, through carbon sequestration by both natural means and by technical developments; and (iv) the development of highly-efficient energy capture, storage and re-use methods [3,7]. There is indeed still a considerable scope for improving the energy efficiency. In the short or medium term, waste heat recovery and high temperature thermal energy storage are crucial concepts to im- plement such solutions, and even current power plants can use high temperature thermal energy storage to improve the energy balance of their operations, since they increase the flexibility and availabil- ity of heat and electricity in traditional or sustainable power plants. The re-use “of low grade heat”, typically between ambient tem- perature and 200 °C, is not widespread since it is a technical and economic challenge to obtain useful exergy and energy from low grade heat. A large amount of low grade heat is available in the process industry, e.g. water from cooling towers with exhaust gas temperatures between 35 °C and 55 °C, and stack exhausts with a broader temperature range, between 30 °C and ~180 °C [8,9]. HighlyPDF Image | Thermal energy storage: Recent developments
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