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Energies 2020, 13, 340 15 of 21 high-temperature solar TES, conversion of sunlight into heat to create synthetic fuel, and use of TES for enabling thermal management of internal combustion engine vehicles and rise the driving range of electric vehicles. The potential of adopting TES solutions also passes from the development of materials with enhanced characteristics, among which some solutions under study include nanostructured heat storage materials, metal hydride thermal storage, supercritical fluid-based thermal energy storage system, thermal batteries, and new thermoelectric materials with increased efficiency of direct heat-to-electricity conversion. A detailed appraisal of key aspects for obtaining high-efficiency TES is provided in [48]. These aspects include the high energy density of the storage material, low internal losses and possibly high-temperature operation; the high heat transfer between the HTF and the storage material, also due to the performance of the heat exchanger; the reversibility of charging and discharging cycles, with mechanical and chemical stability of the storage material during cycling, and the facility of TES integration and control inside the overall energy system. One of the main drivers for future developments is the assessment of the flexibility that may come from the integration of TES into the multi-energy systems targeted to smart cities and energy communities [39]. The attention given to TES application in local communities has been limited [2,38] but is now increasing [83]. Community energy storage has been addressed in [98] indicating that at present only traditional thermal storage with water tanks is in general economically viable. In the future, more integration among different energy carriers is envisioned. Additional flexibility for the multi-energy system may come from combining TES with P2G and battery storage, for enhancing the storage capability for both electricity and heat and provide better energy services to the grid. In this respect, P2G could be suitable for relatively long-term storage [99], while battery storage could cover the short-term operation, and TES could be a complementary option to enhance the effectiveness of mid-term operational strategies. Moreover, mobile TES systems have been studied and tested [4]. These systems can be transported on trucks, to make the heat source available at remote locations from the thermal energy network. In particular, latent heat or chemical TES are suitable for mobile TES because of their relatively small volume with respect to sensible heat TES [54]. At a larger scale, TES is considered attractive to improve the efficiency of CAES technology, leading to the construction of Advanced Adiabatic CAES solutions (AACAES) [8]. In these systems, TES is used to store the heat resulting from the compression process. The stored heat is then used to preheat the air in the expansion phase. Beyond its increased efficiency, the AACAES technology is promising because of its negligible environmental impact and its relatively reduced costs and is in operation in a pilot site [100]. Experimental tests with combined sensible/latent heat TES have also been carried out, and their results have shown promising prospects for further analyses [101]. Among the possible solutions for large-scale TES, the pumped heat energy storage, or pumped thermal electricity storage [102] is a further attractive solution because it is not limited by geographical constraints (as it happens for PHS or CAES) or a low life-time. 7. Conclusions The use of TES technologies in grid applications could increase in the next future. The contributions of these technologies in reducing the peak of the electrical demand, smoothing the fluctuations given by uncertain generation from variable renewable energy sources, and enhancing the efficiency of the energy systems, enable the provision of additional grid services to distribution networks, microgrids, or multi-energy systems. These aspects also concur in reaching the core objectives of strategic programmes to promote “clean energy” initiatives, by reducing the greenhouse gas emissions, and to empower consumers in the direction that promotes increased awareness of the local consumer groups, towards the creation of local energy communities and markets. The flexibility of integrated energy systems can be enhanced by the exploitation of TES, with the participation in energy shifting among multiple energy carriers, also reducing the need to discharge heat to the ambient. In addition, TES systems require limited maintenance. For these reasons, the acceptance of suitably designed applications thatPDF Image | Thermal Energy Storage for Grid Applications
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