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Sustainability 2018, 10, 191 Sustainability 2018, 10, 191 Figure 17. Storage capacity depending on temperature for TES [9]. Figure 17. Storage capacity depending on temperature for TES [9]. 26 of 32 TES includes a number of different technologies, each one with its own specific performance, TES includes a number of different technologies, each one with its own specific performance, application, and cost. application, and cost. Important fields of application for TES systems are in the building sector (e.g., DHW, space Important fields of application for TES systems are in the building sector (e.g., DHW, space heating, 26 of 32 7. Performance and Cost of TES Systems 7. Performance and Cost of TES Systems heating, and air-conditioning) and in the industrial sector (e.g., processes heating and cooling). TES and air-conditioning) and in the industrial sector (e.g., processes heating and cooling). TES systems systems can be installed as either centralized plants or distributed devices. Centralized plants are can be installed as either centralized plants or distributed devices. Centralized plants are designed designed to store waste heat from large industrial processes, conventional power plants, combined to store waste heat from large industrial processes, conventional power plants, combined heat and heat and power plants, and renewable power plants, such as CSP. Their power capacity ranges power plants, and renewable power plants, such as CSP. Their power capacity ranges typically from typically from hundreds of kW to several MW. Distributed devices are usually buffer storage hundreds of kW to several MW. Distributed devices are usually buffer storage systems to accumulate systems to accumulate solar heat to be used for domestic and commercial buildings (e.g., hot water, solar heat to be used for domestic and commercial buildings (e.g., hot water, heating, and appliances). heating, and appliances). Distributed systems are mostly in the range of a few to tens of kW. Distributed systems are mostly in the range of a few to tens of kW. TES systems based on sensible heat storage offer a storage capacity ranging from 10 to 50 TES systems based on sensible heat storage offer a storage capacity ranging from 10 to 50 kWh/t kWh/t and storage efficiencies between 50 and 90%, depending on the specific heat of the storage and storage efficiencies between 50 and 90%, depending on the specific heat of the storage medium medium and thermal insulation technologies. PCMs can offer higher storage capacity and storage and thermal insulation technologies. PCMs can offer higher storage capacity and storage efficiencies efficiencies from 75 to 90%. In most cases, storage is based on a solid–liquid phase change with from 75 to 90%. In most cases, storage is based on a solid–liquid phase change with energy densities of energy densities of 100 kWh/m3 (e.g., ice). TCS systems can reach storage capacities of up to 250 100 kWh/m3 (e.g., ice). TCS systems can reach storage capacities of up to 250 kWh/t with operation kWh/t with operation temperatures of more than 300 °C and efficiencies from 75% to nearly 100%. temperatures of more than 300 ◦C and efficiencies from 75% to nearly 100%. The cost of a complete The cost of a complete system for SHS ranges between 0.1 and 10 €/kWh, depending on the size, system for SHS ranges between 0.1 and 10 €/kWh, depending on the size, application, and thermal application, and thermal insulation technology. The costs for PCM and TCS systems are in general insulation technology. The costs for PCM and TCS systems are in general higher. In these systems, higher. In these systems, major costs are associated with the heat (and mass) transfer technology, major costs are associated with the heat (and mass) transfer technology, which has to be installed to which has to be installed to achieve a sufficient charging/discharging power. Costs of LHS systems achieve a sufficient charging/discharging power. Costs of LHS systems based on PCMs range between based on PCMs range between 10 and 50 €/kWh, while TCS costs are estimated to range between 8 10 and 50 €/kWh, while TCS costs are estimated to range between 8 and 100 €/kWh. The economic and 100 €/kWh. The economic viability of a TES depends heavily on application and operation viability of a TES depends heavily on application and operation needs, including the number and needs, including the number and frequency of the storage cycles. frequency of the storage cycles. Cost estimated of TES systems include storage materials, technical equipment for charging and Cost estimated of TES systems include storage materials, technical equipment for charging discharging, and operation costs. Although economic analyses for conventional systems (without and discharging, and operation costs. Although economic analyses for conventional systems thermal storage) [92] and systems with sensible storage (water) tanks are abundant [93–99], (without thermal storage) [92] and systems with sensible storage (water) tanks are abundant [93–99], comparative cost analyses of using a PCM as a latent heat thermal storage unit in a solar absorption comparative cost analyses of using a PCM as a latent heat thermal storage unit in a solar absorption cooling system are rarely seen. Godarzi et al. [100] designed a PCM storage system based on cooling system are rarely seen. Godarzi et al. [100] designed a PCM storage system based on exergo-economic analysis and a genetic algorithm in a 45.4 kW LiBr/H2O system. Their analysis exergo-economic analysis and a genetic algorithm in a 45.4 kW LiBr/H2O system. Their analysis showed a payback period of 0.61 years without PCM storage to 1.13 years with PCM storage. Calise showed a payback period of 0.61 years without PCM storage to 1.13 years with PCM storage. Calise [94] [94] numerically also investigated an LiBr/H2O system using thermo-economic and optimization numerically also investigated an LiBr/H2O system using thermo-economic and optimization techniques, and 64% of primary energy was saved with a payback period of 12 years. TES systems for sensible heat are rather inexpensive as they consist basically of a simple tank for the storage medium and the equipment to charge/discharge. Storage media (e.g., water, soil, rocks, concrete or molten salts) are usually relatively cheap. However, the container of the storage material requires effective thermal insulation, which may be an important element of the TES cost. techniques, and 64% of primary energy was saved with a payback period of 12 years.PDF Image | Comprehensive Review of Thermal Energy Storage
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