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Sustainability 2018, 10, 191 23 of 32 The products B and C can be stored separately, and thermal losses from the storage units are restricted to sensible heat effects, which are usually small compared to those of the heat of reaction. Thermal decomposition of metal oxides for energy storage has been considered [81]. These reactions may have an advantage in that the oxygen evolved can be used for other purposes or discarded and that oxygen from the atmosphere can be used in the reverse reactions. Two examples include the decomposition of potassium oxide 4KO2 ↔ 2K2O + 3O2 which occurs over a temperature range of 300–800 ◦C with a heat of decomposition of 2.1 MJ/kg, and that of lead oxide, 2PbO2 ↔ 2PbO + O2 which occurs over a temperature range of 300–350 ◦C with a heat of decomposition of 0.26 MJ/kg. There are many practical problems yet to be faced in the use of these reactions. Energy storage by thermal decomposition of Ca(OH)2 has been extensively studied by Fujii et al. [82]. The reaction is Ca(OH)2 ↔ CaO + H2O. The forward reaction will proceed at temperatures above ~450 ◦C; the rates of reaction can be enhanced by the addition of zinc or aluminum. The product CaO is stored in the absence of water. The reverse exothermic reaction proceeds easily. An example of a photochemical decomposition reaction is the decomposition of nitrosyl chloride, which can be written as NOCl+photons →NO+Cl. The atomic chlorine produced forms chlorine gas, Cl2, with the release of a substantial part of the energy added to the NOCl in decomposition. Thus, the overall reaction is 2NOCl + photons → 2NO + Cl2. The reverse reaction can be carried out to recover part of the energy of the photons entering the reaction. Processes that produce electrical energy may have storage provided as chemical energy in electrical storage batteries or their equivalent. Thermo-chemical reactions, such as adsorption (i.e., adhesion of a substance to the surface of another solid or liquid), can be used to store heat and cold, as well as to control humidity. The high storage capacity of sorption processes also allows thermal energy transportation. Table 9 lists some of the most interesting chemical reactions for TES [79]. While sorption storage can only work at temperatures of up to ~350 ◦C, temperatures of chemical reactions can go much higher. Table 9. Some chemical reactions for thermal energy storage [79]. Reaction Methane steam reforming Ammonia dissociation Thermal dehydrogenation of metal hydrides Dehydration of metal hydroxides Catalytic dissociation 6. Cool Thermal Energy Storage CH4 + H2O = CO + 3H2 2NH3 = N2 + 3H2 MgH2 = Mg + H2 CA(OH)2 = CAO + H2O SO3 = SO2 + 12 O2 Temperature (◦C) 480–1195 400–500 200–500 402–572 520–960 Energy Density (kJ/kg) 6053 3940 3079 (heat) 9000 (H2) 1415 1235 Cool thermal energy storage (CTES) has recently attracted interest for its industrial refrigeration applications, such as process cooling, food preservation, and building air-conditioning systems. PCMs and their thermal properties suitable for air-conditioning applications can be found in [76]. For air-conditioning and refrigeration (ice storage), temperatures from −5 to 15 ◦C are optimum for thermal storage [8,83–85], but at lower temperatures, latent heat storage materials are better thanPDF Image | Comprehensive Review of Thermal Energy Storage
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