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Membranes 2022, 12, 990 5 of 10 Feed (Acceptor) NaCl Concentration (g/L) 7.2 7.2 Cartridge (Donor) NaCl Concentration (g/L) 20 100 * Qsoln: 1 mL/min, #fibers: 10, Vcartridge: 30 mL. Acceptor Final NaCl Concentration (g/L) 9.37 ± 0.05 29.59 ± 0.92 and conductivity measurements (Fisherbrand, Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). The average salt transport pick-up was calculated with the equation given below: average salt transport (%) = Cf inal − Cinitial ∗ 100 (1) Cinitial where; Cfinal and Cinitial are final and initial NaCl concentrations of the acceptor solution, respectively. 2.4. Reverse Electrodialysis (RED) Setup and Salt-Cartridge Coupling The RED biopower cell setup was assembled as previously described [20]. Briefly, a miniaturized 3-D printed RED stack was used as the biopower cell. The dilute stream (7.2 g/L NaCl) was split off from the feed into the overall unit (salt cartridge + RED biopower cell). The concentrate stream was split off from the feed into the overall unit and then introduced in situ by being pumped through the salt cartridge as the feed ac- ceptor stream to create a higher salinity solution through the diffusion of salt from the donor salt solution contained within the hollow fibers. By splitting off part of the over- all feed and flowing it through the salt cartridge a higher salinity gradient between the dilute and concentrate streams to the RED stack was created, which should result in an increased power density (Figure 1). Based on the parametric salt pick up studies, the donor solution concentration was chosen to be 350 g/L, and a 20-fiber cartridge design was used. The device was operated for 24 h continuously, with a solution flow rate of 1 mL/min. A physiological temperature (~37 ◦C) was maintained for all the flowing streams using two heating mantles controlled via PID controllers (Autonics, Mundelein, IL, USA). The RED power cell’s voltage was measured using a multimeter (Klein Tools MM-700, Lincolnshire, IL, USA). 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Salt Pick-Up Studies Reverse electrodialysis is a membrane-based electrochemical technique that exploits the salinity gradient between two streams to harness sustainable blue energy. The chemical potential captured is converted into electrical energy at the electrodes via redox reac- tions [23]. One approach to increase the power density of a RED device is to increase this salinity gradient. This study increased the salinity gradient in situ through the use of a salt cartridge unit. A series of preliminary salt-pick experiments were performed to determine the effect of the salinity difference on salt diffusion from the donor solution to the acceptor solution. The chosen donor solution flow rate was 1 mL/min, for the cartridge that was equipped with 10 fibers. Salt was diffusively transported from the high salt (20 or 100 g/L NaCl) donor solution to the feed (acceptor) solution which was at the physiologically relevant salt concentration of 7.2 g/L. The average amount of salt transport was found to be around 14% for the low salt donor solution (20 g/L) while for the high salt donor solution (100 g/L) the average salt transport was almost quadrupled, with an average increase of 51% (Table 1). In both cases, the feed solution increased in salinity due to the salt cartridge as was desired. Table 1. Preliminary pick-up tests for function verification * (n = 3). % Average Salt Transport 14.08 ± 7.3 51.07 ± 24.3 The effect of the feed (acceptor) flow rate on the salt transport was investigated by testing four different flow rates (0, 1, 20, and 100 mL/min) as shown in Figure 2. ThePDF Image | Integrated Salt Cartridge-Reverse Electrodialysis
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