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Appendix E FUNDAMENTALS OF X-RAYS Radiation Physics X-rays are electromagnetic waves, like visible light, microwaves, and radio waves. The difference between these different types of electromagnetic radiation is in their wavelengths, the distance between adjacent peaks of the waves. Our eyes are equipped to see radiation in a certain range of these wavelengths which we call visible light. Radiation at other wavelengths, invisible to the human eye, can only be detected by means of special sensors. Electromagnetic radiation of most wavelengths passes through some materials, for example through air, without either being absorbed or reflected. When visible light passes through such a material we call it transparent. Other materials pass only a fraction of the radiation incident on them and either absorb or reflect the rest (we call such materials translucent or attenuating) and still others absorb or reflect most the radiation incident on them (we call these opaque). The shorter the wavelength of the radiation is the more energy it carries and the greater is the chance of its passing through various materials without being absorbed or reflected. X-rays have very short wavelengths. They thus carry considerable more energy and are able to pass through many materials without a large fraction of them being absorbed. In fact, the fraction of incident x-rays that is absorbed by a given material depends mostly on the material’s density. Thus, dense materials such as lead and gold absorb a much greater fraction of incident x-rays, at a given thickness of the material, than do “light” materials, such as water. Similarly, x-rays pass mostly unabsorbed through most biological tissues such as muscle and various organs, but they are more strongly absorbed by bone, which has a higher density. X-ray imaging takes advantage of this difference in the x-ray attenuating properties of various tissues in the body. What we finally see as a finished radiograph is the result of variations in the intensity of the x-ray beam due to differences in attenuation by different tissues. After passing through the body, the x-rays, which have passed through without being attenuated, impinge on fluorescent screens between which a photographic film is sandwiched. The fluorescent screens are made of a dense material designed to absorb most of the incident beam and, on absorbing the x-rays, emitting visible light to which the photographic film is sensitive. They thus expose the film, which is then developed to display the radiograph. How X-rays Are Made An x-ray tube is a special case of electronic vacuum tube. It always has a glass envelope with several electrical leads sealed into it, enclosing several electronic elements, with the air removed from it as completely as possible. A schematic diagram of a tube head, which includes the tube itself (glass envelope + contents), is shown as Figure II-1; a typical control panel is shown as Figure II-2. 14PDF Image | Radiation Machine Registration Permit Manual
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