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Chapter 2 a number of operational problems and changes, it paved the way for the follow- ing generations of geothermal power plants. After two other small experimental geothermal ORC power plants [56], in 1984 the company founded by Dr. Bron- icki commissioned its first commercial ORC power plant for the conversion of geothermal energy in Wabuska, Nevada, featuring a capacity of 700 kWE [56]. As a consequence of the oil crisis of the late 70’s, many other units for geother- mal power plants manufactured by several companies followed, while also the capacity of these plants gradually increased toward the multi-MWE range. The working fluids were mainly light hydrocarbons, chlorobenzenes, and chloro-fluoro- carbons (CFC). In this period, few ORC power plants were used also for the con- version of other renewable energy sources, like industrial waste heat and engine exhaust gases. The largest of these plants was built in Japan at Mitsui Engineer- ing & Shipbuilding, featuring a power output of 15 MWE [57]. As a result of rising concerns about air pollution, followed by rising fuel prices during the oil crisis, investigations on the use of Rankine engines for automobiles started in the 70’s [58, 59]. Both steam and organic compounds were considered as working fluids, with either a turbine or a piston expander. A 30 kWE prototype was suc- cessfully tested as bottoming cycle on a long-haul truck [8, 60], but never made it to the commercial market. In the 80’s, intense research and development activity occurred also in East Germany, Finland, France, Japan, Israel, Italy, USSR. In the US, notable developments were related to five 600 kWE units for industrial heat recovery [61], and to a concept for electricity generation for the international space station [62, 63]. Particularly relevant are the studies carried out in Italy during the 60’s and the 70’s by Prof. Gianfranco Angelino, one of the fathers of modern ORC power systems technology, together with his colleagues at Politecnico di Milano, Prof. Mario Gaia and Prof. Ennio Macchi. Their work was important also because it helped laying the scientific and technical basis for research and development [2]. An example of the application of these investigations is documented in a study presented by Bado and colleagues, a 35 kWE perfluorocarbon (C8F16) unit pro- viding a net electric conversion efficiency of 19 % at condensing and collectors cooling loop exit temperature equal to 40 and 300 oC, respectively [64]. Such unit was subsequently built and tested, and a net efficiency of 17 % was recorded at a turbine inlet temperature of approximately 270 oC [65, 66]. In these first proto- types, axial turbines were directly coupled to an asynchronous generator rotating at 3,000 rpm. Notable is the Borj Cedria 12 kWE solar power station in Tunisia, which was commissioned in 1983. The working fluid was tetrachloroethylene, and during field tests a net electrical efficiency of 11 % was recorded, with evaporation 24PDF Image | New Concepts FOR Organic Rankine Cycle Power Systems
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