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ORC Power Systems: History, Status, Perspectives rectifier feeding the load. The electrical output terminals reach the outside of the assembly thanks to ceramic feed-throughs. The high boiling point of the work- ing fluid enables returning the condensate by gravity without the need for a feed pump. The stainless steel evaporator is of the once-through type, and the con- denser is naturally air-cooled in order to avoid moving parts. The recuperator is tube-in-shell [46, 51]. In more recent years, photovoltaic panels substituted mini- ORC turbogenerators for these applications. In 1975, Prigmore and Barber presented the first results of a research activ- ity aimed at coupling an array of solar flat-plate collectors, a 1 kWE ORC tur- bogenerator using R113 as the working fluid, and a compression chiller for air conditioning. The evaporation and condensation temperatures were equal to 93 and 35 oC, respectively, the efficiency of the ORC module was 7 %, and the sys- tem overall COP approximately 0.5 [52]. The possibility of reaching maximum cycle temperatures higher than 300 oC by adopting focusing collectors (mainly linear), has been investigated in the late 70’s: a prototype was tested at Sandia National Laboratories in New Mexico, in combination with parabolic trough col- lectors to heat a thermal oil loop powering an ORC turbogenerator of 32 kWE, and also supplying space heating and cooling with an absorption air conditioner [53] . Also in the US, from 1976 to 1984, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory developed a power system using parabolic dishes coupled with an ORC power module. The cavity receiver was designed to heat toluene at approximately 400 oC and 42 bar. The rotating parts (single-stage impulse turbine, centrifugal pump, and alternator) were mounted on a single shaft rotating at 60,000 rpm. The same working fluid was also used for bearing lubrication. A solar-to-electric conversion efficiency of 18 % was measured, with a power output of 16 kWE, thus lower than the design value, due to test conditions [54]. ORC power systems have been adopted also in combination with solar ponds, whereby a temperature gradient is established in a water basin by an artificially in- duced salinity-gradient. An experimental 5 MWE Solar Pond Power Plant (SPPP) was operated from 1983 to 1990 in Beit Ha’aravah, Israel [55]. A 200 kWE SPPP operated from 1986 to 2002 at temperatures as low as 65 oC in El Paso, Texas, USA [56]. The first experimental geothermal cascading ORC power plant was called Magmamax, and it was located in East Mesa, Imperial valley, California [43]. Its initial design was very ambitious, as it was based on two interconnected ORC power plants. The topping cycle utilized isobutane as the working fluid, while the bottoming cycle adopted propane. The plant was commissioned in 1979, and was rated at 12.5 MWE gross power (and 11 MWE net). Though it went through 23PDF Image | New Concepts FOR Organic Rankine Cycle Power Systems
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