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host more species of fungus-per-volume unit than larger trees and logs; however, larger dead logs may be necessary to ensure the survival of specialized fungus species such as heart-rot agents (Kruys and Jonsson 1999, Bate et al. 2004). Implications for Massachusetts Policies: It is clear that dead wood is a central contributor to biodiversity in our forests and that many species are dependent on sufficient quantities and sizes. This requires retention of DWM, standing cull trees and live trees that will eventually create these structures. 4.2.3.2 HabitatandBiodiversityIssuesby Forest Type Northern Hardwood Forests: The number of dead trees in five hemlock-yellow birch forests range from 16 to 45 per ac (40 to 112 per ha) or from 3 to14% of the basal area (Tritton and Siccama 1990). The 14 sugar maple-beech-yellow birch stands survey ranged from 14 to 99 dead trees per ac (35 to 245 per ha) or 5 to 34% of basal area (Tritton and Siccama 1990). Other estimates of snag densities in northern hardwood forests include 5 per ac (11 per ha) (Kenefic and Nyland 2007), 15 per ac (38 per ha) (Goodburn and Lorimer 1998), and 17 per ac (43 per ha) (McGee et al. 1999). The number of cavity trees is another important habitat element in northern hardwood forests that is reduced by harvest. For example, studies in northern hardwood forests have shown a reduction from 25 cavity tree per acre (62 per ha) before harvest and to 11 (27 per ha) afterward (Kenefic and Nyland 2007). Another study measured 7 cavity trees per ac (18 per ha) in old growth, 4 per ac (11 per ha) in even-aged stand, and 5 per ac (13 per ha) in a stand in selection system (Goodburn and Lorimer 1998). Transitional Hardwoods: Out of seven oak stands in Connecticut, the number of dead trees ranged from 19 to 44 per ac (46 to 109 per ha) or 5 to 15% of basal area (Tritton and Siccama 1990). The decadal fall rates of snags in a Massachusetts study varied from 52 to 82% (Wilson and McComb 2005). Snags, particularly large-diameter snags, provide important nesting and foraging sites for birds (Brawn et al. 1982, Gunn and Hagan 2000). In general, wildlife habitat requirements for dead wood are poorly documented, but it is clear that some wildlife species rely on dead wood in oak-hickory forests (Kluyver 1961, DeGraaf et al. 1992). Implications for Massachusetts Policies: The number of standing dead trees varies by forest type in unmanaged stands. Ideally, biomass retention targets would also vary by forest type; but presently there are not enough data across forest types and ages to set specific targets for standing dead trees by forest type. The Forest Guild Retention and Harvesting Guidelines for the Northeast include guidelines with targets for retaining standing live and dead trees that are general for all forest types in Massa- chusetts. Over time Massachusetts and other state guidelines may be able to hone in on specific targets by forest type. 4.3 LESSONSFROMOTHERINITIATIVES: PROTECTING STAND LEVEL ECOLOGICAL VALUES THROUGH BIOMASS HARVEST GUIDELINES States from Maine to Missouri, Canada, and some European countries have addressed or are addressing stand-level ecological concerns by developing guidelines for harvesting woody biomass from forests. To inform the Massachusetts process, we have expanded on the Forest Guild’s report An Assessment of Biomass Harvesting Guidelines to provide updates, include additional states in New England, and give a thorough assessment of northern European initiatives. This section begins with an overview of the Guild report highlighting key points relevant to Massachusetts. It concludes with a brief review of the harvesting regulations and BMPs in Massachusetts and the gaps in those directives that indicate that a new set of guidelines is needed. 4.3.1 OVERVIEWOFREGULATORYFRAMEWORKS In the U.S., forestry on private and state lands is regulated primarily at the state level. At least 276 state agencies across the country have some oversight of forestry activities, including agencies focused on forestry and others concerned with wildlife or environment protection policies (Ellefson et al. 2006). All 50 states have BMPs. In general, BMPs originally focused on water quality and did not anticipate the increased removal of biomass. Consequently, BMPs historically have offered little or no specific guidance on the amount of removal that is healthy for ecosystems or how much biomass should be retained. However, this situation is changing. Pennsylvania’s old BMPs encouraged operators “to use as much of the harvested wood as possible to minimize debris,” while more recent guidelines recommend leaving “15 to 30% of harvestable biomass as coarse woody debris.” Woody biomass is usually considered to be logging slash, small- diameter trees, tops, limbs, or trees that cannot be sold as higher- value products. Depending upon prevailing market conditions, however, material meeting pulp or pallet specifications may also be used in biomass energy facilities. Reasons for biomass harvesting guidelines are likely to mirror the reasons forestry is regulated in general, which include (Ellefson and Cheng 1994): • generalpublicanxietyoverenvironmentalprotection, • theobligationtocorrectmisappliedforestrypractices, • theneedforgreateraccountability, • growthoflocalordinances, • landscape-levelconcerns,and • followingtheleadofothers. Biomass harvesting guidelines are designed to fill the gaps where existing BMPs may not be sufficient to protect forest resources under new biomass harvesting regimes. In other words, BMPs were BIOMASS SUSTAINABILITY AND CARBON POLICY STUDY MANOMET CENTER FOR CONSERVATION SCIENCES 68 NATURAL CAPITAL INITIATIVEPDF Image | NATURAL CAPITAL INITIATIVE AT MANOMET
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