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decades) tends to favour the sink option, while a longer timeframe favours the bioenergy option. The reason is that the accumulation of carbon in forests and soils cannot continue endlessly—the forest eventually matures and reaches a steady state condition. This is also the case for soils. In contrast, bioenergy can be produced repeatedly and continue to deliver greenhouse gas emissions reduction by substituting fossil fuels. The bioenergy and carbon sink options obviously differ in their influence on the energy and transport systems. Bioen- ergy promotion induces system changes as the use of biofuels for heat, power, and transport increases. In contrast, the carbon sink option reduces the need for system change in relation to a given climate target since it has the same effect as shifting to a less ambitious climate target. The lock-in character of the sink option is one disadvantage: mature forests that have ceased to serve as carbon sinks can in principle be managed in a conventional manner to produce timber and other forest products, offering a relatively low GHG reduction per hectare. Alternatively, they could be converted to higher yielding energy planta- tions (or to food production) but this would involve the release of at least part of the carbon store created. On the other hand, carbon sinks can be viewed as a way to buy time for the advancement of climate-friendly energy tech- nologies other than bioenergy. Thus, from an energy and transport systems transformation perspective, the merits of the two options are highly dependent on expectations about other energy technologies (IEA Bioenergy, 2009). Growing concerns about greenhouse gas impacts of forest biomass policies also surfaced recently in journal articles by Johnson (2008) and by Searchinger, et al. (2009). The Searchinger article, appearing in Science and titled “Fixing a Critical Climate Accounting Error,” points out that rules for applying the Kyoto Protocol and national cap-and-trade laws contain a major flaw in that the CO2 emis- sions from biomass energy are not properly taken into account because they embody the implicit assumption that all biomass energy is carbon neutral. Consistent with the recent IEA report discussed above, Searchinger’s critique states: The potential of bioenergy to reduce greenhouse gas emis- sions inherently depends on the source of the biomass and its net land-use effects. Replacing fossil fuels with bioenergy does not by itself reduce carbon emissions, because CO2 released by tailpipes and smokestacks is roughly the same per unit of energy regardless of the source. Bioenergy therefore reduces greenhouse gases only if the growth and harvesting of the biomass for energy capture carbon above and beyond what would be sequestered anyway and thereby offset emissions from energy use. This additional carbon may result from land management changes that increase plant uptake or from the use of biomass that would otherwise decompose rapidly. In on-line supporting material for the Science article, Searchinger et al. note that: Use of forests for electricity on additional carbon: Roughly a quarter of anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide are removed from the atmosphere by the terrestrial carbon sink, of which the re-growth of forests cut in previous decades plays a major role. Any gain in carbon stored in regenerating forests contributes to the sink, so activities that keep otherwise regenerating forests to constant levels of carbon reduces that sink relative to what would have occurred without those activities. The net effect of harvesting wood for bioenergy is compli- cated and requires more analysis. Each ton of wood consumed in a boiler instead of coal does not significantly alter combustion emissions. However, some of the wood in standing timber is typically not utilized and is left to decay in the forest or nearby, causing additional emis- sions. Much of the carbon in roots will also decompose. Replanting may accelerate release of carbon from forest soils. As the forest regenerates following cutting, it may sequester carbon faster or slower than would have occurred in the absence of the harvesting, depending on the previous forest’s age, site quality and forest type. Over long periods, the carbon stocks of the forests with and without the harvest for biofuels may be equal. For this reason, how different emissions are valued over time plays an important role in estimating the net carbon effects of harvesting wood for use as a bioenergy. In Europe, policies towards biomass may be beginning to reflect this more complex view of potential greenhouse gas impacts. A 2009 EU policy directive recognizes the need to demonstrate the sustainability of biomass energy, and speci- fies that the European Commission complete such a study. Section 75: The requirements for a sustainability scheme for energy uses of biomass, other than bioliquids and biofuels, should be analysed by the Commission in 2009, taking into account the need for biomass resources to be managed in a sustainable manner (European Parliament and Council, 2009). However, the results of this recently completed study of biomass sustainability take as a starting point the presumption of biomass carbon neutrality—adopting the long-term view that CO2 emissions from combusted biomass eventually will be recaptured as long as the forests are regenerated. In this context, the report goes on to discuss a variety of recommended policy options including ones to ensure that all biomass is sourced from certified sustainable supplies. To the extent that this new report becomes the basis for future EU policies, such policies would appear to adopt a very long-term view of the relevant timeframe for biomass policies, one that does not place great emphasis on the potential for shorter term increases in CO2 flux that likely result from forest biomass energy generation. BIOMASS SUSTAINABILITY AND CARBON POLICY STUDY MANOMET CENTER FOR CONSERVATION SCIENCES 12 NATURAL CAPITAL INITIATIVEPDF Image | NATURAL CAPITAL INITIATIVE AT MANOMET
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