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Figure 7 Wet, isentropic and dry working fluids; with dry and isentropic fluids condensation within the turbine can be avoided Dry and isentropic working fluids are most suitable for the ORC as they do not condense after the fluid goes through the expander; see also the comparison between water steam cycle and ORC at section 1. Further it can be noted that dry fluids (R113, R123, R245ca, R245fa, isobutane) show better performance than wet fluids such as R134 and propane [9]. However, if slope is too positive the vapor leaves with substantial superheat, which is wasted in the condenser. A recuperator minimizes this effect by preheating the liquid before boiler entry with the superheated vapour at expander exit. Though, the recuperator means additional complexity and investment costs. An isentropic fluid leaves the expander dry but without significant superheat, resulting in increased efficiency without the need for a recuperator [10]. 4.2. Environmental and health impact Many of the fluids suitable for use in ORC can have harmful effects on the environment or human health. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) have good thermodynamic properties, are thermally stable, and non-toxic. Unfortunately, CFC’s release chlorine ions into the upper atmosphere, which catalyse the destruction of ozone molecules. The Montreal Protocol (Sept 1987) restricts the use of halons containing chlorine such as CFC’s. Hydroflourocarbons (HFC’s) have similar properties to CFC’s but are permitted for use because they do not contain chlorine. Hydrocarbons such as pentane or toluene have good thermodynamic properties but are also toxic, and extremely flammable. However with proper precautions alkanes have been used successfully in ORC systems without damaging the environment or harming human health. Siloxanes (silicon oils) are flammable but have low toxicity and little environmental impact [11]. 4.3. Typical working fluids and operating range Sylvain Quoilin points out that most of the research has mainly focused on the optimization of the cycle efficiency and/or output power with respect to the cycle configuration and of the available working fluids. Other criteria such as expansion machine availability for the selected conditions and fluid, or size of the components have rarely been taken into account [12]. In his study he presents the operating ranges of single stage scroll and screw expander as well as radial turbine for typical working fluids. Figure 8 shows the operating maps for screw expander and radial turbine as a function of the condenser and evaporator temperature. It also contains five typical applications: high temperature solar and biomass, high and low temperature waste heat and geothermal.PDF Image | Application of Organic Rankine Cycles (ORC)
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