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III. NATIONAL ACTIVITIES UNITED STATES 17.6.3.2 Potential Displacement of Oil See preceding discussion in section 17.6.3.1 above. Only 5 percent of United States electricity generation is from oil. A better comparison is to coal-fired generation, which has been done for CO2 displacement. However, the GIA request for the annual report is to also report tones of oil displaced (Figure 17.6). Table 17.6 Savings of oil and CO2 for geothermal replacement of oil. Geothermal Category Power Plants1 Direct Use2 GHP2 TOTALS 17.6.3.3 Water Requirements Million Tonnes CO2 15.3/11.65 1.27 11.2 27.77 Million TOE 35.7 0.65 3.78 40.13 Superscript notes: 1 CO2 displacement compared to coal-fired/oil fired 2 Lund, CO2 displacement compared to coal Geothermal power plants use large quantities of cooling water. For example, a 50-megawatt water-cooled binary- cycle plant requires more than 23 million liters of cooling water per day (455000 liters per megawatt per day). Since many geothermal resources are located in arid regions where water is a scarce and regulated commodity, long-term access to water could be an important constraint on their development. (Conversion systems for EGS will probably use air-cooled condensing in order to minimize water losses from the subsurface heat exchange loop.) 17.6.3.4 Air Quality There are no air emissions where closed-loop binary technology is used. However, naturally occurring chemical compounds may be released into the atmosphere as a byproduct of the extraction of geothermal energy at sites using flash steam technology for energy conversion, including varying concentrations of hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, arsenic, boron, mercury, and radon. At The Geysers power plants in northern California, the geothermal fluid contains hydrogen sulfide. The sulfur (an average of 1.5 kg per MWh) is separated, dewatered, and recycled as feedstock for sulfuric acid production. Future technology will use microbial processes to extract metals contained in the sulfur, allowing further reuse. However, at most geothermal hot-water power plants, hydrogen sulfide is present in such low concentrations that it requires no special controls to comply with environmental regulations. 17.6.3.5 Solid Waste Disposal To date, all waste streams from geothermal facilities in California have satisfied state standards through either treatment or emission control. At some sites, such as the Salton Sea field in California, geothermal fluids can contain large quantities of dissolved solids. The energy extraction process produces a low temperature liquid stream that must be disposed of in accordance with the appropriate regulations. Most often, the liquid is reinjected as part of the total reservoir management strategy. In the Imperial Valley, California, high-salinity brines are processed by flash crystallizers, which produce sludge containing potentially toxic IEA Geothermal R&T Annual Report 2004.doc 128PDF Image | Geothermal Energy Annual Report 2004
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