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sun, the energy within the earth is immense and has a lifetime measured in billions of years. However, unlike the use of sunlight, tapping into local sources of the earth’s heat can result in a temporary decrease in the local amount of energy available. Reinjecting geothermal fluid that remains after steam is extracted helps preserve the fluid volume of the reservoir. However, even with reinjection, the heat content of the reservoir gradually declines. The recovery period for a geothermal resource depends on how it is used. A recent study (3) indicates that the recovery period is approximately 30 years for heat pumps, about 100-200 years for district heating, and several hundred years for electricity generation. Resources tapped for electricity generation could provide energy for 50 years or more, if properly managed, but plant equipment typically reaches the end of its useful life before the resource is depleted. Continuous long-term use of geothermal energy for electricity generation would require the periodic construction of new plants at new sites, while previously used reservoirs recover. While geothermal is not immediately renewable like technologies such as solar and wind, it has a number of important advantages. Geothermal electric plants operate 24 hours per day and thus produce base-load electricity. There is no need for storage, and dispatchability is not an issue. Geothermal plants are not vulnerable to weather effects, except that cycle efficiencies (and hence plant output) tend to be higher in the winter (when heat is rejected to a lower sink temperature) than in the summer. (This is especially true for binary plants that are air-cooled). Geothermal plants are also extremely reliable and typically operate more than 95% of the time, with some plants at over 99%. This compares to availabilities of 60-70% for coal and nuclear plants. Geothermal plants are often located in areas of high scenic value, where the appearance of the plant is important. Fortunately, geothermal power plants take up little land space, and, with careful design, they can easily blend into the surrounding environment. Wet cooling towers at plants can produce plumes of water vapor, which some people find unsightly. In such cases, air-cooled condensers can be used. A good example of an aesthetic geothermal power plant is the 35 MW binary-cycle plant located near the Mammoth Lakes ski area in northern California. The plant uses air cooling, has a low profile, is painted in colors that match the natural landscape, and is surrounded by trees. As a result, passing motorists on the nearby highway don’t even notice it. 2. TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION The current power plants for generating electricity from hydrothermal resources can be divided into two general types: steam and binary. Steam plants are the most cost- effective technology when the resource temperature is above about 175 C. In these plants, steam is expanded through a turbine to generate electricity. For geothermal resources rich in steam (such as at The Geysers), the steam can be used directly. Because such sites are rare, it is much more common for hot water from a geothermal resource to be flashed to steam by spraying it into a tank where its pressure is decreased. This can occur in either a single- or dual-stage process. A schematic of a typical flash plant is shown in Figure 1. Flash Tank Turbine/ generator set Condenser Air and water vapor Air Cooling tower TT Production well pump Injection well pump Fig. 1: Example flash-steam geothermal power plant. For lower quality resource temperatures below about 175°C, flash plants lose their efficiency, and it is more efficient to transfer heat from the geothermal fluid to a volatile working fluid (typically a hydrocarbon such as isobutane or isopentane) that vaporizes and is passed through a turbine. Such plants are called “binary” because a secondary fluid is used in the actual power cycle. These plants tend to have higher equipment costs than flash plants. Because they transfer heat from the geothermal fluid and return all the geothermal fluid to the ground, they do not have condensed steam available as cooling water. Thus they must use a separate water source or air-cooled condensers. Because all of the geothermal fluid is returned to the reservoir, binary-cycle plants do not require mitigation of gaseous releases and reservoir fluid volume is maintained. Because larger binary plants are typically comprised of small modules, maintenance can be done on one module atPDF Image | STATUS AND FUTURE OF GEOTHERMAL ELECTRIC POWER
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