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equivalent (Huntly-sized) coal-fired power station (5,551 GWh at 953 tonnes CO2–eq / GWh), leaving a calculated net benefit from geothermal of 4.52 Mt CO2eq (as above). This calculation ignores the longer-term effects of steam production on natural CO2–eq emission rates through the ground. Figure 17.7 Trends with time on a quarterly basis, of CO2–eq emissions (in ktonnes) for New Zealand electricity generation, separated into fuel types, showing an overall downward trend since 2005, due mostly to the replacement of coal with geothermal generation. 17.4 Market Development, Stimulation and Constraints 17.4.1 DevelopmentConstraints Proximity to grid is not a major issue for most potential development fields because of an established grid throughout the Taupo Volcanic Zone. A bottle-neck in grid capacity in the Taupo area, due to large recent increases in local geothermal power generation, is being addressed by adding high-voltage lines. The Bay of Plenty and Northland regions are net importers of electricity, so new geothermal generation in those areas would ease transmission costs. When base-load geothermal generation doubles to ~25% of the total, and assuming by then that other variable renewable sources, such as hydro and wind contribute another 65%, then the capacity for further geothermal growth will be constrained by the probable ongoing need for some gas-powered load-following top-up generation (~10%), and by growth in demand (currently about 1.5%/yr), unless energy intensive industry or overnight vehicle fleet electrification becomes a major factor. In the near-term, constraints on the potential for future geothermal energy development are largely the issue of environmental effects and consideration for tourism and natural feature preservation. In the Waikato Region, approximately 50% of the estimated economically accessible resources are categorised by the regional authority (Waikato Regional Council) for protection due to their outstanding natural characteristics. Some resources are only available, at present, for small research takes or limited development as a precautionary measure. Resources located near cities (e.g., Rotorua and Taupo) are subject to stricter control of fluid take and injection rates (with more stringent conditions on resource users), in order to minimize the risk of possible adverse effects on urban environments, such as subsidence, hydrothermal eruptions or pressure interference between bore users. 192PDF Image | Geothermal Research and Tech IEA
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