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• Pumped hydroelectric storage: During off-peak energy periods, pumped hydroelectric storage systems pump water in lower reservoirs back to the upper reservoir for later, peak-demand application.77 • Compressed air energy storage (CAES): These systems store energy in natural gas power plants by using off-peak, low-cost energy to compress air into underground geologic formations (such as an aquifer or salt cavern) or surface vessels.78 During peak-demand, the compressed air is discharged and combined with a small amount of natural gas to power the natural gas turbine. CAES is a mature technology demonstrated in two plants worldwide: a 290 MW plant opened in Germany in 1978 and a 110 MW plant opened in 1991 in Alabama. • Na/S, Zn/Br, Ni/Cd battery systems: Battery packs use electro-chemical reactions for bulk energy storage.79 Storage for Distributed Generation Storage systems with smaller power discharges, lower storage capacity, and shorter discharge power durations (100-2,000 kW discharge of 50kWh to 8mWh of power over 0.5 to 4 hours) are used for distributed generation.80 Distributed generation uses stored energy for power generation during periods of peak demand to avoid peak energy purchase prices, a process called “peak shaving.” Distributed generation might also involve deferring transmission to off-peak periods. Battery storage is the most prominent distributed generation application; however, several alternatives have emerged, including surface CAES (see description above), flywheels, thermal energy storage, flow batteries, and hydrogen fuel cell storage: • Battery systems: Na/S, Zn/Br, Ni/Cd, Lithium-ion, and V-redox batteries are used for distributed generation applications. • Flywheels: Flywheel systems store energy mechanically by applying excess generating capacity to turn a rotor or disk in one direction on its axis. This stored mechanical energy is later released by slowing the disk’s rotation. According to the Federal Energy Management Program, flywheel systems are becoming a more attractive alternative to battery storage in uninterruptible power supply systems.81 Although a greater capital investment, flywheels offer distinct advantages to batteries in that they can survive frequent and deep discharges and higher operating temperatures; they also last longer, are easier to maintain, and have a smaller footprint.82 Flywheels are either high speed or low speed, and their application affects their engineering. For example, high-speed flywheels are more energy dense and are designed to withstand higher rotating speeds during discharge. • Thermal energy storage: Thermal energy storage applies specific heat materials (e.g. water, cement), thermo-chemical reactions, or phase change materials to store energy created during heat-intensive generating processes. For example, 105PDF Image | Shaping Energy Technology Transition
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