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use.55 Several REHC technologies exist that can not only provide electricity with low to no emissions but also produce space heating and cooling, and water heating. While ocean thermal energy conversion supplies only air conditioning, biomass, solar, and geothermal technologies can provide space heating and cooling, and water heating. Ocean Thermal Cooling Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) uses temperature gradients naturally occurring in different ocean depths and requires a difference of at least 20°C (36°F) to operate. Typically this technology is available only to regions found in the tropics and temperate zones. Although its use in providing electricity is still being researched, OTEC currently provides air conditioning to administration and laboratory buildings at the National Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority (NELHA). At this facility, the seawater provides around 50 tons of air conditioning, offsetting the equivalent of 200 kW of peak electrical demand. Using the seawater cooling system saves NELHA almost $4,000/month in electricity cost, and the system requires far less maintenance than traditional systems.56 For more information on ocean thermal technology see page 57 of this report. Biomass Heating & Cooling Biomass materials that provide space heating and cooling include wood and crop residues, organic wastes, crops grown specifically for energy production, animal wastes, black liquor (from pulp and paper production), and municipal solid waste (MSW).57 Heat producing biomass combustion, which includes wood burning stoves, MSW incineration, pellet boilers, and anaerobic digestion, is a mature technology that is largely cost competitive with fossil fuels. While biomass is not necessarily freely available and does require collection, it is easily stored with existing technology for long periods of time (unlike other renewable technologies). Further, agricultural residues, animal wastes, and MSW can have low to negative costs where disposal or treatment costs can be avoided. Biomass transport costs, however, can be high due to low energy density when compared to fossil fuels. The overall cost for delivered energy, therefore, can vary greatly depending on the biomass type, transport distance, and storage costs.58 Land use for biomass production is limited due to biodiversity concerns and the need for resources like food, animal feed, material, and fiber. Traditional biomass is used for heat by billions of people in the developing world; however, the outdated stoves used to burn it produce carbon emissions that could be avoided with the use of well-designed and enclosed stoves. For example, commercial bioenergy heat production plants produce around 5 to 15 grams per gigajoule (g/GJ) of particulate matter while older domestic wood stoves can emit up to 150 g/GJ.59 Harvesting plants and trees (benevolent consumers of harmful carbon emissions) for energy does contribute to the current climate deterioration. Therefore, for biomass- driven heating and cooling to be considered carbon neutral, replacement crops and forests 100PDF Image | Shaping Energy Technology Transition
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