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Bahram Saadatfar, Reza Fakhrai and Torsten Fransson, JMES Vol 2 Issue 1 2014 There are some disadvantages that limit the SRC. As an example, in condenser, the pressure of steam needs to be brought down to less than atmospheric pressure, which means demanding the desecrators unit to protect the air leak into a system in the last stage of turbine and condenser. The low-pressure steam turbine due to a large volumetric flow ratio may be inefficient [14]. Utilizing molecularly heavier fluid as a working fluid can result in higher isentropic efficiencies around 60%. Moreover, heavier organic fluid has vapor pressure above the atmospheric [15]. Moisture droplet formation in the last stage of steam turbine results in superheat working condition or reinforcing blade material in wet turbine to avoid erosion [16]. Capital cost will be greater for superheating system, due to the lower vapor heat transfer coefficients, and mostly necessities of multi-stage reheating and expansion. For the temperature range of available renewable thermal energy resources, vapor cycles using water shows to be a poor working fluid for the conversion system [17], thus several potential working fluids so called organic fluids. 2.2 Organic Rankine cycle The principle of the organic Rankine cycle (ORC) is the same as steam Rankine cycle, but instead using organic working fluids with low boiling points for recovering heat from low-temperature heat source. Ringler [18] studied water, ethanol and toluene, by comparing some physical properties such as latent heat, thermal stability, and freezing temperature as well as environment aspects. The study shows that water better suits for the high temperature waste heat recovery and organic fluids are superior for the recovery of low-grade waste heat recovery. Pure organic fluids such as HCFC123 [19], HFC-254fa [20], isobutene [21], n-pentane [22] and aromatic hydrocarbons [23] have been examined by authors [24,25]. Tchanche et al. [26] examined working fluids for a low temperature solar ORC below 90°C and shows that R134a and R152a are the most suitable fluids. Chen et al. [27], and Tchache et al. [28], and Hung et al. [15], also have published reviews on ORCs for a number of different low temperature energy sources. Mixtures for ORC are also had been studied in some literatures [24,29]. Papadopoulos et al. [17,30] proposed a computer-aided-molecular-design technique to generate the general molecular structure for optimal ORC working fluids. Comparison of fluid's properties in SRC and ORC is summarized in Table 2. A list of common working fluids in commercial installations is listed in Table 3 [31], and a short list of installed ORC waste heat recovery plants is available in Table 4 [32,33]. Schematic configuration of an ORC system using pure fluid, and its T-s diagram is presented in Fig. 2. The organic working fluids have many different physical properties from water. The slope of the saturation curve in T-s diagram ( dT / ds ) is one of the main point in categorizing working fluids. The T-s slope for water is positive ( ds / dT 0 ). However, for many organic fluids this diagram would be negative like R22 ( 0 ) or infinite like R11 ( 0 ). 3PDF Image | Thermodynamic Vapor Cycles for Converting Low- to Medium-grade Heat to Power: A State-of-the- art Review and Future Research Pathways
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