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3964 B.F. Tchanche et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 3963–3979 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 s[kJ/kg.K] Fig.1. T–sdiagramsofwaterandfeworganicfluids. Its T–s diagram in the form of a bell that characterizes wet fluids is depicted in Fig. 1. Advantages presented by water as working fluid are [1]: • very good thermal/chemical stability (no risk of decomposition) • very low viscosity (less pumping work required) • good energy carrier (high latent and specific heat) • non-toxic,non-flammableandnothreattotheenvironment(zero ODP, zero GWP) • cheap and abundant (present almost everywhere on earth) However, many problems are encountered when using water as working fluid [2]: • need of superheating to prevent condensation during expansion • risk of erosion of turbine blades • excess pressure in the evaporator • complex and expensive turbines Because of the aforementioned reasons, water is more suitable for high temperature applications and large centralized systems. Seeking for small and medium scale power plants, the problems encountered with water can be partially mitigated by selecting an appropriate fluid. Organic compounds characterized by higher molecular mass and lower ebullition/critical temperature than water have been proposed in so called “Organic Rankine Cycles”. An Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) has several advantages over con- ventional steam power plant: • Less heat is needed during the evaporation process. • The evaporation process takes place at lower pressure and tem- perature. • The expansion process ends in the vapor region and hence the superheating is not required and the risk of blades erosion is avoided. • The smaller temperature difference between evaporation and condensation also means that the pressure drop/ratio will be much smaller and thus simple single stage turbines can be used. Comparison of fluids properties in steam and organic Rankine cycles is summarized is Table 1. Potential substances identified for ORCs are [3–10]: • Hydrocarbons (HC) • Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) Table 1 Summary of fluids properties comparison in steam and organic Rankine cycles. Steam R113 MM n-Penta ne R245fa n-B utan e Fluid Critical pressure Critical temperature Boiling point Condensing pressure Specific heat Viscosity Flammability Toxicity Environmental impact Availability Cost Steam cycle Water High High High Low High Low No No No Available Cheap Organic Rankine cycle Organic compound Low Low Low Acceptable Low Relatively high Yes, and depends on fluid Yes High and depends on fluid Supply problem Expensive • Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC) • Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) • Perfluorocarbons (PFC) • Siloxanes • Alcohols • Aldehydes • Ethers • Hydrofluoroethers (HFE) • Amines • Fluids mixtures (zeotropic and azeotropic) • Inorganic fluids A working fluid in organic Rankine cycle machine plays a key role – It determines the performance and the economics of the plant [11]. This justifies the abundant literature dedicated to fluids selection for very different heat recovery applications from which characteristics of good fluids can be extracted [3,4,9,12–15]: • Vapor saturation curve with zero or positive slope (ds/dT) (isen- tropic or dry fluids) • High latent heat of vaporization • High density (liquid/vapor phase) • High specific heat • Moderate critical parameters (temperature, pressure) • Acceptable condensing and evaporating pressures (>1bar and <25 bar resp.) • Good heat transfer properties (low viscosity, high thermal con- ductivity) • Good thermal and chemical stability (stable at high temperature) • Good compatibility with materials (non-corrosive) • Highthermodynamicperformance(highenergetic/exergeticeffi- ciency) • Good safety characteristics (non-toxic and non-flammable) • Low environmental impacts (low ODP, low GWP) • Low cost and good availability Although investigated since the 1880s, organic Rankine cycles have never been popular until today’s growing concern over the future depletion of fossil fuels and the global environmental destruction is turning the interest on low grade energy recovery systems. Owing to its low operating temperature, an organic Rank- ine cycle can suitably recover heat from various sources: solar energy, geothermal heat, biomass, industrial waste heat, etc. – and this has already been demonstrated as can testify numerous plants installed in USA, Canada, Italy, Austria, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden and elsewhere [16–18]. The number of ORC plants installed worldwide is steadily increasing but not at the same rate for all applications. Growing number of ORC manufacturers and installers propose machines easily adaptable to existing heat sources for on- site power generation at different power sizes [19]. Although these companies keep record of their references, there is a lack of exact T[°C]PDF Image | Nevada Inventor Richard Langson to Confer With President Obama
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