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Gowreesunker et al. Renewable Bioresources 2014, http://www.hoajonline.com/journals/pdf/2052-6237-2-4.pdf and to consume food. Hence, the energy gradually embeds in the intermediate and final food products, whereby any food products not consumed by the chain therefore represent a loss of embedded energy and a waste of resources. In 2011, total UK food wastes amounted to 15 Mt, with approximately 50% arising from the production, manufacturing and retail sectors, and the rest from the household and hospitality sectors [6]. However, 6 Mt is avoidable waste arising due to food/drinks being thrown away untouched, excess production, personal preference, or accidents [6]. This can be minimised/ avoided through changes in food labelling and consumer behaviour, a relaxation of quality standards, improved manufacturing processes and logistics and better temperature control [7]. Unavoidable waste from the food chain arises from both organic food wastes (9Mt) and packaging wastes (10Mt) [6]. Packaging wastes can be reduced through increased recycling, re-use and avoiding packaging [8], whilst unavoidable organic waste is produced from food remnants that cannot be ingested by humans or the by-products of farming. In an attempt to better manage waste, the EC Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC established the waste hierarchy shown in Figure 1. Prevention Preparing for Re-Use Recycling Other Recovery Disposal Figure 1. EC Directive 2008/98/EC Waste hierarchy [9]. For the purpose of this paper, the emphasis will be on the ‘other recovery’ section of the waste hierarchy which includes the recuperation of embedded energy in organic wastes, i.e., improving the resource efficiency of the food chain. Organic food wastes and agricultural wastes, such as cattle/pig slurries and manures (estimated to be 90Mt/year [8]) can effectively be used as an energy resource in different stages of the food chain. A popular method is anaerobic digestion (AD), which uses microorganisms to convert organic waste into methane- rich biogas (used in the generation of electricity and heat) and biofertiliser in the absence of oxygen. AD systems have been strongly favoured and advocated by the UK government, especially through the UK renewable energy incentives, as doi: 10.7243/2052-6237-2-4 a mean to divert waste from landfills and encourage a more efficient resource flow across the economy [10]. The general AD process schematic is shown in Figure 2. Hydrolysis Acidogenesis Acetogenesis Methanogenesis Figure 2. Anaerobic digestion stages [11]. Different strains of bacteria are used to digest the complex carbohydrates, lipids and proteins in food into their component parts in the hydrolysis phase, which are then converted to carbonic, volatile fatty acids and alcohol in the acidogenesis phase. These products are then converted to acetic acid in the acetogenesis phase, before being converted to methane (CH4) in the methanogenesis phase. Biogas generally consists of 50-75% CH4 and 25-50% CO2, with traces of other gases [12]. AD systems are generally divided into mesophilic (operating temperatures of 25-45°C) and thermophilic (operating temperatures of 50-60°C). The latter has a faster biogas production rate, but mesophilic systems are more common in the UK due to lower capital and operating costs [13], as well as the relatively more stable operation for food waste [11]. In the UK, regulations on food waste collections are not universal. In England, only 26% of municipal councils provide separate food collections whereas this percentage is 95% in Wales, while Scotland now imposes local councils to separately collect food wastes [14]. Source-segregated food wastes (i.e., separating organic food from inorganic wastes in municipal solid waste (MSW) basket) are being preferred due to: high energy costs of processing wet waste with AD; EU regulations in various countries preventing the use of digestate produced from inorganic materials [15]; and the possible higher biogas yield, depending on the composition of MSW. For the purpose of this study, due to the difficulty in quantifying the composition of food waste within the UK economy [16], the quantities reported in references [15,17] are adopted. Furthermore, food waste only refers to the organic section of waste. Currently, 35% of household and hospitality food waste is landfilled, whilst 7% is sent to AD–although this amount is growing [14]–whilst, the grocery supply chain (i.e., retail, wholesale and manufacturing) sectors send approximately 10% and 5% of food wastes to landfill and AD, respectively [16]. Anaerobic digestion technologies produce the fuel (biogas), an alternative to fossil fuels, but require energy conversion technologies to generate useful energy. This paper addresses the technologies used to generate electricity and heat from AD plants. It will provide a description of the general performance of each technology, and will employ a series of scenarios to determine the future energy generation potential of biogas produced from food-chain wastes in AD plants. This is considered important in order to address energy security issues and the impact of incorporating further renewable 2PDF Image | Energy generation potential of anaerobic digestion from the food and farming wastes of the UK food chain
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