PDF Publication Title:
Text from PDF Page: 002
166 H. Safaei et al. / Applied Energy 103 (2013) 165–179 Nomenclature CapEx specific capital cost ($/MW) Z CCR capital charge rate (%) GHGNG Greenhouse gas intensity of natural gas (tCO2e/GJ) COE levelized cost of electricity ($/MWh) Greek D diameter of pipeline (mm) g compressibility factor of compressed air (dimension- less) thermal efficiency (%) El electricity generated during each hour (MWh) ER energy ratio of energy storage plant (MWh energy stored/MWh generated) f friction factor of the pipeline (dimensionless) FOM fixed operating and maintenance cost ($/MW/year) HL hourly heat load (MW thermal) HR heat rate (GJ/MWh) L length of pipeline (km) P pressure (kPa) Price price of fuel ($/GJ) Q flow rate of pipeline (m3/day) Size optimal size (MWh or MW) T temperature (K) Tax emission tax ($/tCO2e) VOM variable operating and maintenance cost ($/MWh) Subscripts and Superscripts Cav cavern of energy storage plant CCGT combined cycle gas turbine Comp compressor of energy storage plant Down downstream of pipeline Exp expander of energy storage plant h hour HOB heat-only-boiler HRU heat recovery unit NG natural gas Pipe pipeline SCGT simple cycle gas turbine Up upstream of pipeline Wind wind farm has increased more than 30-fold at the end of 2010 (4.0 GW) com- pared to its levels at the beginning of the year 2000 [5]. In spite of this impressive growth, wind energy still composes a small portion of the total installed capacity in these countries. Integration of wind energy into the electric grid is complicated by the additional costs raised by its intermittent nature, the challenge that periods of high production do not necessarily coincide with periods of high demand, and sometimes the far distances between sites with good wind resources and high electric loads that mandate construction of capital intensive transmission lines. As a case in point, Denmark can generate up to 30% of its electric power by offshore wind farms; nevertheless, almost all of its excess wind-based electricity is sold to its neighboring countries with hydroelectric capacities for virtual storage as a means to cope with wind intermittency [3,6]. Even if periods of peak production and demand coincide, grid con- gestion may prevent delivery of wind-based electricity to the cus- tomers of the grid. In fact, the uncertain production of wind-based electricity has the potential to create or worsen grid congestion problems and grid stability issues [7]. The grid operator can choose any of the following approaches to deal with the intermittency of wind energy and to provide reliable and dispatchable wind-based electricity and thus facilitate higher wind penetration into the grid. These include utilization of fast-re- sponse thermal plants, geographically dispersed production sites, and bulk energy storage. (a) Fast-ramping thermal plants: these plants, such as gas tur- bines and diesel generators, can engage as necessary to fill the gap between the generation and demand of electricity. They can quickly ramp up and down to accommodate changes in electricity production and consumption; how- ever, their intermittent (as needed) operation causes them to have a relatively low capacity factor. Therefore, their cap- ital, maintenance, and operating costs should be compen- sated by their limited operational period leading to an increase in the overall cost of wind-based electricity. The transient and partial-load operation of these plants also leads to lower thermal efficiencies and higher emission of pollutants. In recent years, some new gas turbine designs have been introduced to the market that are claimed to be able to ‘‘chase-wind’’ without significant performance deg- radation when operated at partial load (e.g. Langage CCGT plant in the UK [8]). Therefore, compensating inherent fluc- tuations in wind-based electricity through fast-response thermal plants involves the associated cost of cycling fast ramping thermal plants and/or building specially designed fast ramping thermal plants. (b) Spatial distribution of generation sites: Another option to cope with intermittency of wind energy is to geographically disperse wind farms over a large area, overcoming localized wind patterns and resulting in smoother overall energy production [9]. However, this arrangement has the disad- vantage of increased overall capital cost due to the need for longer transmission lines between distributed produc- tion centers and the load and it may not be feasible for some wind projects. Furthermore, this approach may necessitate large-scale planning over a large area which may include different utility owners and electricity markets, further com- plicating the market dynamics of wind-based electricity. (c) Bulk Energy Storage: Bulk Energy Storage (BES) systems can partially mitigate the fluctuations in supply and demand of electricity by storing excess energy generated during off-peak periods or during periods that electricity cannot be transmitted because of grid congestion for later use (peak-demand times with higher electricity prices). BES can improve operation of conventional power plants, e.g., coal and nuclear, by allowing them to operate closer to their optimal design points. More importantly, energy storage systems can convert intermittent wind energy into a firm capacity that can be dispatched based on the market price of electricity and the requirements of the grid operator. They can also avoid or reduce grid congestion and prevent or delay the need for new transmission lines. Furthermore, some of the BES facilities can provide ancillary services to the grid (e.g. frequency control) and hence generate addi- tional revenues [10]. BES systems are characterized based on their discharge duration and power production capacity. Only compressed air energy storage (CAES) and pumped hydro storage (PHS) can provide utility- scale storage capacities (hundreds of MW-hours) required for large scalePDF Image | 20 kW ORC Turbine Off-Design Performance Analysis
PDF Search Title:
20 kW ORC Turbine Off-Design Performance AnalysisOriginal File Name Searched:
156.Safaei.Keith.Hugo.CAES.e.pdfDIY PDF Search: Google It | Yahoo | Bing
NFT (Non Fungible Token): Buy our tech, design, development or system NFT and become part of our tech NFT network... More Info
IT XR Project Redstone NFT Available for Sale: NFT for high tech turbine design with one part 3D printed counter-rotating energy turbine. Be part of the future with this NFT. Can be bought and sold but only one design NFT exists. Royalties go to the developer (Infinity) to keep enhancing design and applications... More Info
Infinity Turbine IT XR Project Redstone Design: NFT for sale... NFT for high tech turbine design with one part 3D printed counter-rotating energy turbine. Includes all rights to this turbine design, including license for Fluid Handling Block I and II for the turbine assembly and housing. The NFT includes the blueprints (cad/cam), revenue streams, and all future development of the IT XR Project Redstone... More Info
Infinity Turbine ROT Radial Outflow Turbine 24 Design and Worldwide Rights: NFT for sale... NFT for the ROT 24 energy turbine. Be part of the future with this NFT. This design can be bought and sold but only one design NFT exists. You may manufacture the unit, or get the revenues from its sale from Infinity Turbine. Royalties go to the developer (Infinity) to keep enhancing design and applications... More Info
Infinity Supercritical CO2 10 Liter Extractor Design and Worldwide Rights: The Infinity Supercritical 10L CO2 extractor is for botanical oil extraction, which is rich in terpenes and can produce shelf ready full spectrum oil. With over 5 years of development, this industry leader mature extractor machine has been sold since 2015 and is part of many profitable businesses. The process can also be used for electrowinning, e-waste recycling, and lithium battery recycling, gold mining electronic wastes, precious metals. CO2 can also be used in a reverse fuel cell with nafion to make a gas-to-liquids fuel, such as methanol, ethanol and butanol or ethylene. Supercritical CO2 has also been used for treating nafion to make it more effective catalyst. This NFT is for the purchase of worldwide rights which includes the design. More Info
NFT (Non Fungible Token): Buy our tech, design, development or system NFT and become part of our tech NFT network... More Info
Infinity Turbine Products: Special for this month, any plans are $10,000 for complete Cad/Cam blueprints. License is for one build. Try before you buy a production license. May pay by Bitcoin or other Crypto. Products Page... More Info
| CONTACT TEL: 608-238-6001 Email: greg@infinityturbine.com | RSS | AMP |