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Membranes 2022, 12, 373 20 of 29 ratio and type of reducing agent [45,109]. The most commonly used leaching reagents include organic acids (ascorbic acid [139–141], acetic acid [142,143], oxalic acid [144,145], citric acid [141,142,146,147], tartaric acid [148] and succinic acid [149]), inorganic acids (sulphuric acid (H2SO4) [150–152], hydrochloric acid (HCl) [153–156], phosphoric acid (H3PO4) [157,158], and nitric acid (HNO3) [159]), and/or alkaline solutions to leach the desired component out for further purification [31]. Joulié et al. studied different inorganic acids including HCl, H2SO4, and HNO3 for lithium-nickel-cobalt-aluminium oxide (NCA) cathodes and compared their leaching performance [155]. They found that the rate of leaching was significantly higher for HCl due to the formation of chloride ions as a result of the reaction between HCl and LiCoO2. 4 mol L−1 of acidic concentration, 4 h of leaching time and 50 g L−1 of S/L ratio were found to be the optimum leaching conditions, obtaining almost 100% of dissolution for desired elemental recovery. In a study involving HNO3, Lee and Rhee et al. observed a lithium recovery rate as high as 99% when introducing H2O2 as a reducing agent [158]. Despite the high lithium leaching rate using inorganic acids, one of the major drawbacks is the production of hazardous waste (such as wastewater, Cl2, NOx, and SO2) that causes serious threats to environmental regulations. In recent years, organic acids which are degradable and more environmentally friendly have been extensively studied. Such materials have shown a great potential to maintain promising Li recovery rates in hydro-metallurgical methods. Therefore, they have been widely used as alternatives to replace traditional inorganic acids. For example, Li et al. found ascorbic acid was quite effective in Li recycling from LIBs, and a lithium recovery rate of 98.5% was readily obtained [126]. Chen et al. studied the effect of citric acid in a similar process and achieved a Li recovery rate of ~99% [146]. In another study, Zhang et al. combined the biodegradable trichloroacetic acid (TCA) with a reducing agent (H2O2) and observed a Li recovery rate as high as 99.7% [160]. Irrespective of process complexity, hydro-metallurgical processes are considered to be the most favourable processes owing to their high metal recovery rate and good product quality [43]. Bio-Metallurgy Processes In comparison to pyro-metallurgy and hydro-metallurgy, bio-metallurgy processes have proven to be more efficient in terms of equipment and operating costs [45]. These pro- cesses mainly rely on the in-situ production of organic and inorganic acids from microbial activities [21]. Xin et al. found that the rate of release of H2SO4 from micro-organisms signif- icantly influenced the rate of lithium recovery [161]. Mishra et al. explored the significance of ferrous ions and elemental sulphur-oxidizing bacteria in yielding metabolites such as ferric ions and sulphuric acid inside the leaching medium, respectively. These metabolites later helped in dissolving the metal ions from the solution, including Li and Co [43]. In another study, Xin et al. found that the Li ions can be extracted through a non-contact mechanism with a maximum extraction efficiency achieved at lower system pH [162]. Compared to other Li extraction methods, bio-metallurgical processes favour mild reaction conditions are very cost-effective and simple in recovery procedures. However, the whole recovery process is time-consuming and cultivation of the desired batch of micro-organisms is difficult (Table 1) [45]. Other Processes for Lithium Recovery from LIBs With the aim to develop environmentally friendly recovery processes, mechanochem- ical method, a hybrid process that utilizes mechanical energy to influence the physico- chemical and structural properties of the metal component, has been reported [163–166]. Saeki et al. studied the effect of grinding on lithium recovery. In this method, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was mixed with lithium-containing LIB waste (LiCoO2) and ground in a ball mill [163]. LiCoO2 decomposed in the presence of externally applied mechanical energy and converted to lithium and cobalt chlorides, while chlorine in PVC converted toPDF Image | Lithium Harvesting using Membranes
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Product and Development Focus for Infinity Turbine
ORC Waste Heat Turbine and ORC System Build Plans: All turbine plans are $10,000 each. This allows you to build a system and then consider licensing for production after you have completed and tested a unit.Redox Flow Battery Technology: With the advent of the new USA tax credits for producing and selling batteries ($35/kW) we are focussing on a simple flow battery using shipping containers as the modular electrolyte storage units with tax credits up to $140,000 per system. Our main focus is on the salt battery. This battery can be used for both thermal and electrical storage applications. We call it the Cogeneration Battery or Cogen Battery. One project is converting salt (brine) based water conditioners to simultaneously produce power. In addition, there are many opportunities to extract Lithium from brine (salt lakes, groundwater, and producer water).Salt water or brine are huge sources for lithium. Most of the worlds lithium is acquired from a brine source. It's even in seawater in a low concentration. Brine is also a byproduct of huge powerplants, which can now use that as an electrolyte and a huge flow battery (which allows storage at the source).We welcome any business and equipment inquiries, as well as licensing our turbines for manufacturing.CONTACT TEL: 608-238-6001 Email: greg@infinityturbine.com (Standard Web Page)