PDF Publication Title:
Text from PDF Page: 002
340 MUNK ET AL. 2009). These studies further demonstrate that the fluids are Na‐Cl and Na‐Mg‐Cl‐SO4 brines, the majority of which have a pH <4. Although extreme weathering and evaporation have played critical roles in the development of these brines, their Li content is quite low. Only a single brine sample exceeds 1 mg/L Li, and the vast majority of brines contain less than 0.5 mg/L (B. Bowen, pers. commun.) The climate and hydrol- ogy of these systems is favorable for enrichment of Li, but clearly a sufficient Li source and/or concentrating mechanism is absent. Studies of continental Li-rich brines are most extensive for those in the Central Andes of Bolivia and northern Chile as reported in Risacher and Fritz (2009) and references therein. Hundreds of geochemical analyses for brines from this region are published by Moraga et al. (1974), Rettig et al. (1980), Risa- cher and Fritz (1991), and Risacher et al. (1999, 2003). The focus of most of this work was to examine the origin of the salts in the salars. Risacher and Fritz (2009) also provided a general classification for these brines (alkaline, sulfate‐rich, and cal- cium‐rich), and noted that alkaline salars are absent in Chile due to the presence of high‐sulfur volcanic rocks that release hydrogen ions during weathering. The origin of solutes to sal- ars in the Central Andes has been addressed by the major and trace element and isotopic investigations of Alpers and Whit- more (1990), Spiro and Chong (1996), Carmona et al. (2000), and Boschetti et al. (2007). However, none of these studies spe- cifically addressed the origin and accumulation of Li. At Clay- ton Valley, Nevada, Kunasz (1974), Davis et al. (1986), Price et al. (2000), and Zampirro (2004) have explored the sources and concentrating processes of Li in the Clayton Valley brines. More recent work by Jochens and Munk (2011) and Munk et al. (2011) and current work by the authors of this paper on the Li‐ rich brines in Clayton Valley and the Salar de Atacama, Chile, is focused primarily on understanding the sources, transport, and accumulation of Li, and the age of the brines. Bradley et al. (2013) identified common characteristics of Li‐rich continental brines as the basis for an ore deposit model. In this paper, we elaborate on these common char- acteristics and focus on how they can be used as general exploration guidelines for locating future Li brine deposits on a global scale. We also include a discussion of the general geology, hydrogeochemistry, and climate of Li‐rich brine sys- tems followed by detailed discussion in the form of two case studies from the Salar de Atacama, Chile, and Clayton Valley, Nevada, which are currently two of the most well‐studied Li‐ rich brine systems. Six Characteristics Common to Continental Lithium Brines The Li‐rich brine systems in our compilation (Table 1) share six common (global) characteristics that provide clues to deposit genesis while also serving as exploration guidelines. These include: (1) arid climate; (2) closed basin containing a salar (salt crust), a salt lake, or both; (3) associated igneous and/or hydrothermal activity; (4) tectonically driven subsidence; (5) suitable Li sources; and (6) sufficient time to concentrate Li in the brine. Table 1 summarizes information related to the six common characteristics of continental Li‐rich brines. Climate is the first characteristic and is perhaps the most important, as it is linked to all the others because it (1) contributes to the formation of the salars in a closed‐basin setting, (2) is a factor in the concentration of Li in brines over time, and (3) is essential for the concentration of Li in evap- oration ponds for economic purposes. Table 1 indicates the classification of the climate for each Li‐rich brine location in terms of hyperarid, arid, or semiarid. The second characteristic, shared by all continental Li‐rich brines, is a closed basin with a salar(s) or salt lake(s). This characteristic is controlled primarily by climate and tectonic setting. Salars or salt crusts are common where brines exist in shallow subsurface aquifers. The aquifers may be com- posed of halite and other interbedded salts—commonly gyp- sum, as well as volcanic ash or ignimbrites, alluvial gravels and sands, and tufa (commonly evidence of modern or past hydrothermal activity). Most of the locations in Table 1 are classified as salars. Salt lakes may also contain enrichments of Li, although these are typically in the lower range of the concentration spectrum and there are only a few (Table 1) considered here. Most salt lakes do not produce Li because of low concentrations. The third characteristic is evidence of hydrothermal activ- ity. This likely plays a significant role in the formation of Li‐rich brines for several reasons: (1) it provides a hot water source for enhanced leaching of Li from source rocks; (2) it is also likely a direct source of Li from shallow magmatic brines and/or magmatic activity; (3) it may play a role in the con- centration of Li through distillation or “steaming” of thermal waters in the shallow subsurface; (4) thermally driven circula- tion may be an effective means for advecting Li from source areas to regions of brine accumulation; and (5) it can result in the formation of the Li‐rich clay mineral hectorite, which can in turn be a potential source of Li to brines if leaching and transport occur from the clay source. A fourth characteristic of all Li‐rich brine deposits is that they occur in basins that are undergoing tectonically driven subsidence. The basins listed in Table 1 have a number of dif- ferent tectonic drivers, including extension, transtension, and orogenic loading. In contrast, significant Li brine accumula- tions have not been reported from intracratonic basins in arid regions, such as the shallow sabhkas that rest on Precambrian basement of Australia or North Africa. The fifth characteristic or requirement for the formation of Li‐rich brines is a viable source(s) of Li. Lithium sources in various basins appear to include magmatic fluids, high‐ silica vitric volcanic rocks, hectorite, and ancient salt depos- its. These along with the “time factor,” discussed below, are probably the least well understood of the six characteristics. Despite the observation that multiple potential sources of Li exist they are yet to be definitively identified and quantified. The sixth characteristic or requirement for the formation of Li‐rich brines is time. The time it takes to leach, transport, and concentrate Li in continental brines is not well understood. However, it appears that most Li brines of economic interest are geologically young (Neogene). Currently we are working on dating the brines at Clayton Valley, Nevada, United States, and the Salar de Atacama, Chile, as well as developing hydro- geologic models for these environments to understand the transport and accumulation of Li in the closed basins. These studieswillbethefirsttoaddressthetimefactorforLibrines using a quantitative approach.PDF Image | Lithium Brines A Global Perspective
PDF Search Title:
Lithium Brines A Global PerspectiveOriginal File Name Searched:
14_Munketal.pdfDIY PDF Search: Google It | Yahoo | Bing
Product and Development Focus for Infinity Turbine
ORC Waste Heat Turbine and ORC System Build Plans: All turbine plans are $10,000 each. This allows you to build a system and then consider licensing for production after you have completed and tested a unit.Redox Flow Battery Technology: With the advent of the new USA tax credits for producing and selling batteries ($35/kW) we are focussing on a simple flow battery using shipping containers as the modular electrolyte storage units with tax credits up to $140,000 per system. Our main focus is on the salt battery. This battery can be used for both thermal and electrical storage applications. We call it the Cogeneration Battery or Cogen Battery. One project is converting salt (brine) based water conditioners to simultaneously produce power. In addition, there are many opportunities to extract Lithium from brine (salt lakes, groundwater, and producer water).Salt water or brine are huge sources for lithium. Most of the worlds lithium is acquired from a brine source. It's even in seawater in a low concentration. Brine is also a byproduct of huge powerplants, which can now use that as an electrolyte and a huge flow battery (which allows storage at the source).We welcome any business and equipment inquiries, as well as licensing our turbines for manufacturing.| CONTACT TEL: 608-238-6001 Email: greg@infinityturbine.com | RSS | AMP |