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©2016 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc. Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 18, pp. 339–365 Chapter 14 Lithium Brines: A Global Perspective Lee Ann Munk,1,† Scott A. Hynek,2 Dwight C. Bradley,3,* David Boutt,4 Keith Labay,3 and Hillary Jochens1 1 Department of Geological Sciences, University of Alaska Anchorage, 3101 Science Cir., Anchorage, Alaska 99508 2 Earth and Environmental Systems Institute and Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania State University, 302 Hosler, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802 3 U.S. Geological Survey, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, Alaska 99508 4 Department of Geosciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 611 N. Pleasant St., 248 Morrill IV South, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002 Abstract Lithium is a critical and technologically important element that has widespread use, particularly in batteries for hybrid cars and portable electronic devices. Global demand for lithium has been on the rise since the mid‐1900s and is projected to continue to increase. Lithium is found in three main deposit types: (1) pegmatites, (2) con- tinental brines, and (3) hydrothermally altered clays. Continental brines provide approximately three‐fourths of the world’s Li production due to their relatively low production cost. The Li‐rich brine systems addressed here share six common characteristics that provide clues to deposit genesis while also serving as exploration guide- lines. These are as follows: (1) arid climate; (2) closed basin containing a salar (salt crust), a salt lake, or both; (3) associated igneous and/or geothermal activity; (4) tectonically driven subsidence; (5) suitable lithium sources; and (6) sufficient time to concentrate brine. Two detailed case studies of Li‐rich brines are presented; one on the longest produced lithium brine at Clayton Valley, Nevada, and the other on the world’s largest producing lithium brine at the Salar de Atacama, Chile. Introduction Lithium is a critical and technologically important element used in ceramics, glass, lubricants, light‐weight alloys, medi- cine, and batteries. The use of Li ion batteries in electric cars and electronic devices has increased the global demand for lithium, a trend that is likely to continue. Lithium‐rich brines are the most economically recoverable Li source on the planet. Therefore, it is important to understand the genesis of these deposits in order to develop exploration models for continued discovery of new deposits. Lithium is found in three main types of deposits: (1) peg- matites, (2) continental brines, and (3) hydrothermally altered clays. Lithium is a lithophile element because it has a low den- sity of 0.53 g/cm3, an ionic charge of +1, and an ionic radius of 0.79. For comparison Na+ has an ionic charge of +1 but a larger ionic radius of 0.99, and Mg2+ has an ionic charge of +2 and an ionic radius of 0.72. The lithophilic characteris- tics of Li and the fact that it is a trace element explain why it concentrates in the late phases of both hydrothermal and low- temperature fluids. This generally explains its association and geochemical behavior in the three deposit types. In particu- lar, for continental brines there is evidence that both evapora- tive concentration and hydrothermal inputs have a significant impact on concentrating Li in brines. These concentrating processes are effective for Li because it is relatively incom- patible and geochemically conservative, both in magmatic systems and low-temperature solutions. From a Li brine pro- duction standpoint the Mg/Li ratio of the starting and final processed brines is important because Mg causes chemical † Corresponding author: e-mail, lamunk@uaa.alaska.edu *Present address: 11 Cold Brook Rd., Randolph, NH 03593, USA. interferences in the brine purification process. Ultimately, the initial brine composition determines the production process. Lithium‐rich brine deposits account for about three‐fourths of the world’s lithium production (U.S. Geological Survey, 2011). These Li‐rich continental (nonmarine) brines are the focus of this paper. Economically viable Li‐rich brines contain varying amounts of the major cations and anions (Na, K, Mg, Ca, Cl, SO4, and CO3), which can form a range of ionic salts (Warren, 2010). The composition of the source rocks, inflow waters, and the resulting brine composition dictate how the brine will evolve once it undergoes evaporation and mineral precipitation (Eugster, 1980). These brines can also contain appreciable Li, B, Ba, Sr, Br, I, and F, and in the case where Li is concentrated on the order of 100s of mg/L these deposits can be classified as having potential economic viability with respect to Li extraction. It is known that Li can also accumulate in deep oilfield brines, such as those associated with the Smackover Forma- tion in the Gulf Coast of the United States (Collins, 1976) or the Devonian strata of the Appalachian Plateau of Pennsylva- nia (Dresel and Rose, 2010). Some brines are reported to con- tain 100s of mg/L but typically they have low concentrations of Li and are usually greater than 1 km deep, preventing devel- opment (Gruber et al., 2011). There are also occurrences of closed basins with abundant saline ground and surface waters which are not enriched in Li. One example is the ephemeral lakes of southwestern Australia, many of which may have occupied closed basins since the Eocene and are hosted by diverse and highly weathered igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Archean Yilgarn craton (Benison and Bowen, 2006). These unusual waters have salinities that in all but a few cases are 5 to 10 times greater than seawater (Bowen and Benison, 339PDF Image | Lithium Brines A Global Perspective
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