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Minerals 2020, 10, 284 14 of 34 measurements of brine at BDL show that the water has a relatively consistent temperature (20–25 ◦C; (data in [12,13]) as deep as 350 m bls, indicating that free convection is likely. The model predicts that this free convection would promote degradation of the freshwater-saline water contact and eventually make the entire basin saline. This has happened at BDL, but not at CDL or DDL because the alluvial fan water in these basins is still relatively fresh. No geothermal, thermal or cold springs have been found which would direct groundwater flow into one specific area of the Bristol Trough at low elevations. In fact, diffuse groundwater flow into the basin appears to be taking place. Although [5] reported “seeps” of calcium chloride confined to the north and west portions of the playa, locations for these seeps were not reported and they have not been found subsequently [25–28]. However, one of the salt companies on BDL uses groundwater from the east portion of the playa for evaporation to calcium chloride brines, suggesting that brine concentrations are higher to the east, not the west. Late Pleistocene/Early to mid-Holocene diffuse discharge groundwater marsh/spring deposits composed of calcium carbonate have been found on the northeastern margin of BDL near Fenner Valley (Figure 1) slightly above the present playa surface [48]. These thin deposits were formed when more fresh water was entering the basin during wetter periods in the Younger Dryas and early to mid-Holocene wet periods [48]. Data from the geothermal resources map of California and the United States [49] indicate that there are no geothermal wells or springs in the Bristol Trough to indicate warm geothermal fluids, and this particular area of the Mojave has a medium geothermal exploration potential for deep geothermal sources [50]. 2.4. Climate Overall, the 20th-century climate of the Mojave Desert has been discussed in [51]. Even during periods of regional high rainfall or high humidity, evaporitic conditions are dominant in the Barstow-Bristol Trough [51], although Mojave wide droughts and increased rainfall cycles are present due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation that affects interannual climate and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation that causes decadal-scale variability that result in prolonged dry and wet episodes [51]. Calendar-year precipitation in the Mojave Desert region calculated from 52 stations averages 137 mm/yr and ranges from 34 to 310 mm/yr [51]. Modern meteorological conditions for the central Mojave Desert where the Bristol Trough is located indicate a mean annual rainfall of less than 100 mm/yr [28]. Thompson [39] noted that there are periods of 2–3 years with no precipitation recorded. However, there is variability in local weather patterns. Cloud bursts are generally intense but may only cover a small area. Many times, it will rain on one side of the playa and not on the other. The presence of extensive and thick (>3 m) halite beds with primary fabrics (chevron halite with upward growth directions [28]) indicates that the halite formed in a lake setting. In order to evaporate sufficient water to maintain thick halite deposits, a relatively permanent supply of water would be needed. This indicates that the basin was likely wetter at various times in the past [4]. 3. Methods 3.1. Watershed and Groundwater Delineation Watershed boundaries were determined by combining hydrologic unit code (HUC) boundaries at the watershed (HUC-10) level, as larger units crossed closed-basin boundaries. Boundaries were not extended past HUC-4 boundaries to ensure that water outside of the combined basins was not included. The boundary between Bristol and Cadiz watersheds is somewhat difficult to determine because surface water flowing from Fenner Valley (San Bernardino, CA, USA) (Figure 1) flows to a large alluvial fan leading to both the Cadiz and Bristol basins. As a result, groundwater might also flow to both basins, but there is no documentation of this flow and pumping of water in both basins may have changed the natural groundwater flow in the basins. Therefore, although many of the alluvial fan wells appear to be in the BDL groundwater basin, they could also be in CDL. However, for this study, because the water chemistry of BDL and CDL is similar, distinguishing which groundwaterPDF Image | Bristol Dry Lake Brine Compared to Brines from Cadiz
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