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levels of DMF, NMP was more toxic with over 70 % loss of metabolic activity at 1 %, and 20 % loss at 0.2 v/v% NMP (Figure 9.12a). Solvents in the G/DMF and G/NMP preparations were reduced by dialysis to <0.1 v/v% to minimise solvent cytotoxicity. Most FLG preparations were then not significantly cytolytic. Whatever association of the surfactant, albumin and trace solvent FLG preparations with cell membranes, they were not cytolytic up to the highest concentrations tested (100 μg/ml). However, G/Egg PC and GO were cytolytic at relatively low concentrations: G/lipid at >10 μg/ml and GO at >20 μg/ml released hemoglobin from red cell cells (Figure 9.12b). G/Egg PC also inhibited reductive cell metabolic activity of cancer cell lines (breast cancer MCF-7 cells, Figure 9.12c) at relatively low concentrations (>20 μg/ml), whereas GO and G/HSA were not significantly inhibitory at the highest concentration tested (100 μg/ml). G/TDOC was also not significantly inhibitory and slightly stimulatory of metabolism up to the highest concentration tested (50 μg/ml). Dialysed (0.1 v/v%) G/DMF and G/NMP were of intermediate cytotoxicity, reducing cell metabolism by about 50 % at the highest concentration tested (100 μg/ml). G/HSA was least inhibitory to macrophages (murine J774A.1) with loss of reductive metabolism by only 15-20 %, with no significant dose response effect (Figure 9.12d). GO and G/Egg PC were most cytotoxic to macrophages, with relatively low concentrations (>10 μg/ml) leaving little reductive metabolism, whereas dialysed 0.1 v/v% G/DMF was stimulatory at low concentrations and G/TDOC was not significantly toxic at relatively low concentrations (<20 μg/ml). 9.6.1.3. Discussion Aqueous exfoliation of graphene from graphite by sonication and adsorption of very different biomolecules (HSA, bile salt & phospholipids) produced pristine graphene with the typical range of physical characteristics of FLG exfoliated in organic solvents (NMP & DMF). Longer flake lengths and 1-2 more graphene layers may reflect the shorter sonication times in aqueous media to avoid basal plane defects. Though adsorption of the biomolecules modified surface charge to some extent, FLG exfoliated in the organic solvents had a zeta potential (𝜁 of -48 mV) in the middle of the range (𝜁 of -27 to -63 mV). Adsorption of molecules by FLG appears to have a strong contribution to the major Appendix 251PDF Image | PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS OF GRAPHENE AND ITS COMPOSITES
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