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carbon, vacancies, etc. Hence, the structure of rGO contains patches of sp2 carbon islands (3-6 nm size) surrounded by holes and defects (Figure 2.14).175 The C/O ratio varies with different chemicals used for the reduction process176: N2H4 - 10.3,173 NaBH4 – 4.8,171 HI – 12,174 Zn/HCl – 33.5,177 etc. Figure 2.14: a) HRTEM image of single-layer rGO. Colour scheme highlighting different features: dark grey – contaminated regions, blue – disordered single-layered carbon networks or extended topological defects, red – individual adatoms or substitutions, green – isolated topological defects, yellow – holes and their edge reconstructions. Scale bar – 1 nm.175 b) Atomic model illustrating disordered rGO basal plane consisting of holes, topological defects and remnants of oxygen groups.178 Thermal reduction is another alternative method to reduce GO, that employs very high temperatures, to remove the oxygen groups.179-181 The C/O ratio produced were around 12.5 to 14.1.179, 181 In general, the rGO show less hydrophilicity and solubility in solvents. The stability of the dispersions can be improved by covalent or non-covalent modifications of the surface of rGO. Yuan et al. used cyclopentadienyl-capped poly (ethylene glycol) monomethyl ether to covalently functionalise rGO, thereby improving the stability of rGO in otherwise not soluble solvents like water, ethanol, acetone, chloroform etc.182 Stankovich et al. in situ reduced GO in presence of poly(sodium-4-styrenesulfonate) producing stable aqueous dispersions of non-covalently adsorbed polymer-coated rGO.183 Xu et al. have used 1-pyrenebutyrate (PB-) functionalise rGO via 𝜋 − 𝜋 interactions.184 The conductivity (2 × 102 S/m) of the flexible films produced from PB--rGO was at least 7 orders of magnitude higher than the GO precursor. The main advantage of the chemical reduction to produce rGO is its scalability due to relatively simple process. However, the main drawbacks of this process are: complete removal of oxygen and sp3 carbon groups in Chapter 2 – Graphene: Properties and Production 62PDF Image | PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS OF GRAPHENE AND ITS COMPOSITES
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