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6.3 Outlook beyond academia While Li/S batteries are not quite ready for the mass market yet, there is steady and inevitable progress that will virtually force this technology into the production lines eventually – even if only for certain applications. Cardinal remaining challenges for Li/S batteries, as often listed in review articles [37, 62, 284, 285], are the still incomplete understanding of the complex electrochemistry, the limited cycle life, the insufficient power density for cells with realistically high loadings, the failure to suppress side reactions including the polysulfide shuttle, and finally the not yet mature develop- ment of large scale, low-cost fabrication strategies. Despite a recent breakthrough [57], arguably the negative electrode is another issue [286, 287]. An increasing num- ber of scientists and engineers is working on all aspects of the battery to overcome those remaining limitations; taking into account what could be achieved both in terms of technological advancement and gain of knowledge during just the last four years, prospects are good. It seems more than likely that the goals set by the German Bundes- entwicklungsplan Elektromobilität [19], the U. S. DRIVE consortium [288], and other strategic key players are not only within reach, but will be met by advanced Li/S batteries sooner rather than later. Unfortunately, the remarkable progress at the material or electrode level does not translate into an equally large gain at the system or application level. A realistic es- timate of the impact of Li/S cells on the battery system performance in the context of electromobility can be found in Refs. [53, 289]. Because of various system necessi- ties and restraints, the effective gain in specific energy would probably not exceed a factor of three compared to Li-ion batteries available in 2012 and a factor of approx- imately one compared to next-generation lithium intercalation materials. Figures for volumetric energy density look even worse. While this analysis might look discourag- ing at first glance, reaching the goals mentioned in the above publications would still be a big success. Even if there is little or no benefit in terms of energy density com- pared to future high-voltage Li-ion batteries, there are still the advantages in terms of cost, availability, safety, and environmental sustainability. On the contrary, one might even want to trade off some of the capacity in order to further simplify the battery: A lithium/polysulfide battery with a liquid positive electrode was recently proposed independently by two research groups [145, 157]. Skipping the last reduction steps (to avoid the formation of solid Li2S) makes the battery more robust, reliable and af- fordable at the expense of only a fraction of the capacity. Also, some of the battery components are known to be available from renewable sources [290], improving long- term material availability and reducing environmental impact. Finally, there is the possibility to use the battery in a hybrid system together with another secondary bat- tery, fuel cell, or supercapacitor, which completely changes the use profile [291–293] 141PDF Image | Lithium-Sulfur Battery: Design, Characterization, and Physically-based Modeling
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