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340 Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths Temperature measurements rely on repeatable physical manifestations of molecular effects, reporting macroscale changes in the body’s heat content, and are crucial in countless technological and industrial developments and in scientific research, accounting presently for ca. $80% of the sensor market throughout the world. The global market is likely to grow to $6.13 billion in 2020, as recently estimated by Grand View Research (a business consulting firm).1 The thermal expansion of air, alcohol, or mercury, the ductility and conductivity changes of metals, shifts in infrared reflections, and luminescent intensity variations, for instance, are calibrated to associate molecular level changes with easily interpretable temperature scales (McCabe and Hernandez, 2010). For convenience, the measurement methods can be classi- fied into three categories, depending on the nature of contact which exists between the sensor and the object of analysis (Childs et al., 2000): l Invasive. The monitoring device is in direct contact with the medium of interest, eg, thermistor- or thermocouple-based technologies. l Semiinvasive. The medium of interest is treated in some manner to enable remote observation, eg, imaging of thermally sensitive paints. l Noninvasive. The medium of interest is observed remotely, eg, infrared and luminescence thermography. Traditional contact thermometers, such as liquid-filled and bimetallic thermo- meters, thermocouples, pyrometers, and thermistors, are generally not suitable for temperature measurements at scales below 10 mm (Brites et al., 2012; Jaque and Vetrone, 2012; Uchiyama et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2013b). More- over, contact measurements require, in general, conductive heat transfer and thus need to reach equilibrium between the sensor and the object. This ther- mal connection disturbs the temperature of the sample during the measure- ment, especially for small systems (in which the size is small compared to that of the sensor head) (Wang et al., 2013b). Indeed, current technological demands in areas such as microelectronics, microoptics, photonics, microfluidics, and nanomedicine have reached a point such that the use of contact thermometry is not able to make measurements when spatial resolution decreases to the submicron scale, as, for example, in intracellular temperature fluctuations (Arai et al., 2014, 2015; Chapman et al., 1995; Donner et al., 2012; Gota et al., 2009; Hayashi et al., 2015; Homma et al., 2015; Hu et al., 2015; Huang et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2015; Okabe et al., 2012; Qiao et al., 2014; Suzuki et al., 2007; Uchiyama et al., 2015; Vetrone et al., 2010a; Wang et al., 2011a; Zohar et al., 1998), tempera- ture mapping of microcircuits (Aigouy et al., 2005, 2009; Jung et al., 2011; Kolodner and Tyson, 1983; Liu and Yang, 2007; Liu et al., 2012; 1. Temperature sensors market analysis by application (automotive, consumer electronics, envi- ronmental, medical, process industries) and segment forecasts to 2020.PDF Image | HANDBOOK ON THE PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF RARE EARTHS
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